''Gong'an'' or crime-case fiction () is a subgenre of

Chinese crime fiction Chinese crime fiction () is an umbrella term which generally refers to Sinophone literature concerned with the investigation and punishment of criminal acts. In mainland China the most popular subgenre is "detective fiction" (, often abbreviated to ...

involving government

magistrate The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judic ...

s who solve criminal cases. Gong'an fiction first appeared in the colloquial stories of Song dynasty. Gong'an fiction was then developed and become one of the most popular fiction styles in

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peop ...

and Qing dynasties. The

Judge Dee Judge Dee, or Judge Di, is a semi-fictional character based on the historical figure Di Renjie, county magistrate and statesman of the Tang court. The character appeared in the 18th-century Chinese detective and '' gong'an'' crime novel ''Di Gong ...

and

Judge Bao Judge Bao (or Justice Bao (包青天)) stories in literature and performing arts are some of the most popular in traditional Chinese crime fiction (gong'an fiction, ''gong'an'' fiction). All stories involve the Song dynasty minister Bao Zheng who s ...

stories are the best known examples of the genre.

History

There are no surviving works of

Song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetit ...

''gong'an'', a genre of Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries AD) puppetry and oral performances. Judge Bao stories based on the career of

Bao Zheng Bao Zheng (; 5 March 999 – 3 July 1062), commonly known as Bao Gong (), was a Chinese politician during the reign of Emperor Renzong in China's Song Dynasty. During his twenty-five years in civil service, Bao consistently demonstrated extr ...

, a common protagonist of ''gong'an'' fiction, first appeared during the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...

(13th–14th centuries). Bao was a historical figure who worked for Emperor Renzong of Song as a magistrate. Accounts of his life were recorded in historical documents that later inspired the mythological Judge Bao of ''gong'an'' fiction.Kinkley 2000, p. 29 The ''

Circle of Chalk ''The Chalk Circle'' (sometimes translated ''The Circle of Chalk''), by Li Qianfu, is a Yuan dynasty (1259–1368) Chinese classical zaju verse play and gong'an crime drama, in four acts with a prologue.灰闌記) is a Yuan ''

zaju ''Zaju'' was a form of Chinese opera which provided entertainment through a synthesis of recitations of prose and poetry, dance, singing, and mime, with a certain emphasis on comedy (or, happy endings). Although with diverse and earlier roots, ''za ...

'' play that recounts a Judge Bao criminal case. The popularity of Judge Bao performances contributed to the success of written ''gong'an'' novels published in the 16th and 17th centuries.Hegel 1998, p. 32 The oldest collection of Judge Bao stories is the ''Bao Longtu Baijia Gong'an'', the ''Hundred Cases of Judge Bao'', also included in the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...

Bao Gong An Judge Bao (or Justice Bao (包青天)) stories in literature and performing arts are some of the most popular in traditional Chinese crime fiction ( ''gong'an'' fiction). All stories involve the Song dynasty minister Bao Zheng who solves, judges an ...

'' (Chinese: 包公案). The popularity of ''gong'an'' novels diminished in the early years of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...

. It was not until the latter years of the dynasty that the genre experienced a resurgence. During this period of time, Gong'an novels were politicized as a tool of shaping public opinions towards the government. “Wuxia” heroes, also known as martial heroes, rather than acting according to their own code of justice, would often swear loyalty and work in assistance to a government official figure- the initiative of justice derives from the government's actions, not the heroes'. Thematically, the ''gong'an'' works of the Qing dynasty mixed elements of traditional ''gong'an'' fiction with the ''

wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted ...

'' martial arts genre. Qing Judge Bao stories were widespread in every medium, from operas to folk performances and novels. Other magistrates like Judge Peng and Judge Li were also the subject of ''gong'an'' works. ''Shi Gong'an'', ''Judge Shi's Cases'', was published in 1798. In the 1940s, '' Di Gong An'' (Chinese: 狄公案), an 18th-century collection of ''gong'an'' stories, was discovered at a

second-hand Used goods mean any item of personal property offered for sale not as new, including metals in any form except coins that are legal tender, but excluding books, magazines, and postage stamps. Risks Furniture, in particular bedding or upholstere ...

book store in

Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and List of cities in Japan, largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, ...

, Japan and translated into English as the ''

Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee ''Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee'' (; lit. "Cases of Judge Dee"), also known as Di Gong An or Dee Goong An, is an 18th-century Chinese ''gong'an'' detective novel by an anonymous author, "Buti zhuanren" ( Chinese: 不题撰人). It is loosely ba ...

'' by Dutch sinologist

Robert Van Gulik Robert Hans van Gulik (, 9 August 1910 – 24 September 1967) was a Dutch orientalist, diplomat, musician (of the guqin), and writer, best known for the Judge Dee historical mysteries, the protagonist of which he borrowed from the 18th-century ...

in 1949. Van Gulik chose ''Di Gong An'' to translate because it was in his view closer to the Western tradition of detective fiction and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers. He used the style and characters to write a long running series of

books that introduced the ''gong'an'' genre to Western audiences as the "Sherlock Holmes of China". The hybrid ''gong'an'' and ''wuxia'' stories of the Qing dynasty remain popular in contemporary China. ''Wuxia'' writer Jin Yong's novels portray more elaborate martial arts and weapons than that of earlier ''gong'an'' works.

Etymology

The term ''gong'an'' originally referred to the table, desk, or bench of a Chinese magistrate. It was later used as a name for unusual legal cases. ''Gong'an'' as a genre of fiction has been translated into English as "court-case" fiction or "crime-case" fiction. The above etymological development is similar to that of "case" in English - a word which originally described the physical depository where documents of a particular criminal investigation were kept, and later came to refer to the investigation itself.

Themes and Style

The protagonist of ''gong'an'' novels is typically a traditional judge or similar official based on historical personages such as Judge Bao ( Bao Qingtian) or Judge Dee (

Di Renjie Di Renjie (630 – November 11, 700), courtesy name Huaiying (懷英), formally Duke Wenhui of Liang (梁文惠公), was a Chinese politician of Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties, twice serving as chancellor during the reign of Wu Zetian. He was one of ...

). Although the historical characters may have lived in an earlier period (such as the

Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...

dynasty) most stories are written in the latter

or Qing period. Gong'an novels are characterized by a number of distinct plot elements from other subgenres. The "detective" is the local magistrate who is usually involved in several unrelated cases simultaneously, while the criminal is introduced at the very start of the story and his crime and reasons are carefully explained, thus constituting an

inverted detective story An inverted detective story, also known as a "howcatchem", is a murder mystery fiction structure in which the commission of the crime is shown or described at the beginning, usually including the identity of the perpetrator. The story then describ ...

rather than a "puzzle". ''Gong'an'' stories often have a supernatural element with ghosts contacting the living or even accusing the criminal. The plot can digress into philosophy or a series of official documents. The story may feature a large cast of characters, typically in the hundreds.

Themes

The Gong'an fiction is a collection of seemingly unrelated short stories, however, they are connected based on their common tropes or crime-related conventions.St. André, 2002, p. 44 These stories are usually represented by iconic figures, clothing, and characters. For example: Officials,

Yamen A ''yamen'' (''ya-men''; ; Manchu: ''yamun'') was the administrative office or residence of a local bureaucrat or mandarin in imperial China. A ''yamen'' can also be any governmental office or body headed by a mandarin, at any level of gover ...

Underling, and commoners all wear unique clothing. The depiction of these stories are typically presented to an audience, yet, if the stories are written down, illustrations are used. The stories are generally told by the working

Magistrate The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judic ...

, and involve a number of interrelated crimes occurring early in the story. Although, the stories have a common theme of social justice through punishment; the crimes are generally not didactic. In other words, they are crimes committed against other individuals (murder and rape are common examples) rather than society. The crimes are specific breaches in the law, and punishments are generally also pre-prescribed by law. Although the magistrate may have some supernatural knowledge aiding him in solving the case, he must always establish the facts of the case and prove the criminal guilty.

Style

Gong'an fiction is very frequently accompanied by illustrations, such as Van Gulik's personal illustration to his

novels. A re-occurring theme is the imitation of pictures. This repetition ensures readers have a common understanding of what each illustration represents.

This convention holds for pre-Ming full-page illustrations as well as shangtu xiawen illustrations. Thus many early sutras feature the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
seated on a lotus flower, facing three-quarters left, expounding doctrine or, more likely, the text of the accompanying sutra, while his disciples sit facing him, often with their backs to the reader. Likewise, if the illustration depicts action (many of them have a strong narrative element), the action tends to move from right to left. This is clearly seen in one of Zheng Zhenduo's illustrations, wherein the act of butchering animals is dramatically shown to lead straight to the gates of hell at left by means of a cloud-like cartouche.

Genre distinctions

Gong'an fiction is part of a broader category of crime-themed fiction, which includes a variety of true crime stories, like those found in the late Ming dynasty story collection ''

The Book of Swindles ''The Book of Swindles'' (''Piàn jīng'' 騙經), also known by its longer title, ''A New Book for Foiling Swindlers, Based on Worldly Experience'' (''Jiānghú lìlǎn dùpiàn xīnshū'' 江湖歷覽杜騙新書), is said to be the first publi ...

'' or in the type of legal case narratives anthologized in Robert E. Hegel's ''True Crimes in Eighteenth-Century China'' (2009). There are multiple differences between Chinese gong'an fiction and western detective fiction. While western detective fiction focuses very much on realism, Chinese gong'an fiction stories may involve supernatural elements such as ghosts or spirits narrating their death, accusing the criminal, or aiding in the delivery of justice. The criminal being introduced at the beginning of the story is characteristic of gong'an fiction. His crime and reasoning are then explained in detail, therefore constituting an inverted detective story. Furthermore, the stories are filled with periodic breaks from the crime story and divert into philosophical lessons and moral practices that are emphasized in more complexed books. These stories contain a large number of characters which are introduced in terms of their relations to the main characters. Moreover, the main characters are often modelled after popular characters from western stories. For example, ''Di Gong An'' is chosen by

Robert van Gulik Robert Hans van Gulik (, 9 August 1910 – 24 September 1967) was a Dutch orientalist, diplomat, musician (of the guqin), and writer, best known for the Judge Dee historical mysteries, the protagonist of which he borrowed from the 18th-century ...

for its similarities to Western Detective fiction with the consideration that the western readers will have an easier time to comprehend the stories.

Modern television series derived from gong'an fiction

Based on traditional gong'an fiction works such as ''Di Gong An'' and ''Justice Bao'', many television dramas has been derived to portray the stories with a modern touch. Some notable examples are: * '' Amazing Detective Di Renjie 1'' * ''

Amazing Detective Di Renjie 2 ''Amazing Detective Di Renjie 2'', also known as ''Shen Tan Di Renjie 2'', is the second installment in a four-season Chinese television series based on '' gong'an'' detective stories related to Di Renjie, a Tang dynasty magistrate and statesman. W ...

'' * ''

Amazing Detective Di Renjie 3 ''Amazing Detective Di Renjie 3'', also known as ''Shen Tan Di Renjie 3'', is the third installment in a four-season Chinese television series based on ''gong'an'' detective stories related to Di Renjie, a Tang dynasty magistrate and statesman. W ...

'' * '' Da Tang Nu Xun An'' * '' Invincible Knights Errant'' * '' Justice Bao'' (2008 TV series) * '' Justice Bao'' (2010 TV series) * '' Mad Detective Di Ren Jie'' * '' A Pillow Case of Mystery I'' * '' A Pillow Case of Mystery II'' * '' The Three Heroes and Five Gallants'' (1991 TV Series) * '' The Three Heroes and Five Gallants'' (2016 TV series) * '' Young Sherlock'' (TV series)

Notes

All references to Donald Latch should be to Donald Lach. Donald F. Lach

References

*Benedetti, L. (2017). Storia del giallo in Cina. Dai casi giudiziari al romanzo di crimine. Aracne. *Cawelti, J. G. (1997). Canonization, Modern Literature, and the Detective Story. In ''Mystery, Violence, and Popular Culture: Essays'' (pp. 278–287). Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press * * *Lach, D. (1961). Introduction. In ''The Chinese Nail Murders'' (pp. 1–13). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. *St. André, J. (2002). Picturing Judge Bao in Ming Shangtu xiawen Fiction. ''Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews,24'', 43–73. doi:10.2307/823476 * * Yau-woon Ma, "The Textual Tradition of Ming Kung-an Fiction", ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' 35 (1975): 190–220. *黄岩柏：《中国公案小说史》 *鄭春子：《明代公案小說研究》 *孟犁野：《中国公案小说艺术发展史》 *王俊年：《侠义公案小说的演化及其在晚清繁盛的原因》 * "Canonization, Modern Literature, and the Detective Story, John G. Cawelti, from Theory and practice of classic detective fiction, Jerome Delamater, etc., Hofstra University, 1997, p. 8 {{Film genres Chinese literature Detective fiction Crime fiction Literary genres Film genres Works set in Imperial China