The Goguryeo–Sui War were a series of invasions launched by the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...

against

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

, one of the

Three Kingdoms of Korea Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...

, between AD 598 and AD 614. It resulted in the defeat of the Sui and was one of the pivotal factors in the collapse of the dynasty, which led to its overthrow by the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

in AD 618.

Background

The

united

in AD 589, defeating the Chen dynasty and ending the division of the country that spanned almost 300 years. After the unification of China, Sui asserted its position as an overlord of neighbouring countries. However, in

, one of the

, king Pyeongwon and his successor,

Yeongyang Yeongyang County (''Yeongyang-gun'') is an inland county in the north-eastern area of North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Geography An isolated area difficult to access, Yeongyang is sometimes called an "inland island". The county has the lo ...

, insisted on maintaining an equal relationship with the Sui dynasty.

Emperor Wen of Sui The Emperor Wen of Sui (; 21 July 541 – 13 August 604), personal name Yang Jian (), Xianbei name Puliuru Jian (), alias Narayana () deriving from Buddhist terms, was the founder and the first emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. The ''Book of ...

was displeased with the challenge from

, which continued small scale raiding into Sui's northern border. Wen sent diplomatic papers in 596 after Sui envoys spotted

diplomats in the

yurt A yurt (from the Turkic languages) or ger ( Mongolian) is a portable, round tent covered and insulated with skins or felt and traditionally used as a dwelling by several distinct nomadic groups in the steppes and mountains of Central Asia ...

of the Eastern Turkish

Khanate A khaganate or khanate was a polity ruled by a khan, khagan, khatun, or khanum. That political territory was typically found on the Eurasian Steppe and could be equivalent in status to tribal chiefdom, principality, kingdom or empire. Mo ...

and demanded the Goguryeo to cancel any military alliance with the Turks, stop the annual raiding of Sui border regions, and acknowledge Sui as their overlord. After receiving the message,

launched a joint pre-emptive invasion with the

Malgal The Mohe, Malgal, or Mogher, or Mojie, were an East Asian Tungusic people who lived primarily in the modern geographical region of Northeast Asia. The two most powerful Mohe groups were known as the Heishui Mohe, located along the Amur River, ...

against the Chinese along the border in present-day

Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and ...

province in 597.

Course of the war

First invasion in 598

Emperor Wen ordered his fifth and youngest son,

Yang Liang Yang Liang (楊諒) -- courtesy name Dezhang (德章), alternative name Jie (傑), nickname Yiqian (益錢) -- was an imperial prince of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty. He was a son of Emperor Wen and his powerful wife Empress Dugu, who, dur ...

(assisted by the co-prime minister

Gao Jiong Gāo Jiǒng () (died August 27, 607), courtesy name Zhaoxuan (昭玄), alternative name Min (敏))) known during the Northern Zhou period by the Xianbei name Dugu Jiong (独孤颎/獨孤熲), was a Chinese military general and politician of the C ...

), and Admiral Zhou Luohou (周羅睺), to invade and conquer Goguryeo with an army and navy totaling 300,000, mostly composed of horse archers. Yang Liang's army faced the early rainy season when it reached Goguryeo. The unseasonably heavy rain made the army's progress almost impossible and hampered the transport of provisions. Constant attacks by Goguryeo forces and illness inflicted heavy casualties. Coming to the conclusion that the army could not achieve the objective on its own, Yang decided to combine with Zhou's naval fleet and proceed. Zhou's navy also came across their own challenges, contending with rough seas, losing many ships despite staying close to the coastline. Whenever they anchored, Goguryeo detachments were present to attack the Sui sailors, and Sui fleet suffered a devastating loss.

Second invasion in 612

Preparations

Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), also known as Emperor Ming of Sui () during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong, was the second emperor ...

, when he won the throne in 604, built the Grand Canal connecting the north and south of China. The south, economic base of China, and the north, political base of China, were connected by the canal, allowing transportation of troops for the massive military campaign. After the construction of the canal, Emperor Yang ordered the enlisting of soldiers in 611. He instructed them to gather in present-day

Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...

. The force gathered by year's end was one of the greatest in civilization according to the ''

Book of Sui The ''Book of Sui'' (''Suí Shū'') is the official history of the Sui dynasty. It ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written by Yan Shigu, Kong Yingda, and Zhangsun Wuji, with Wei Zheng as the lead author. ...

'', which states that 1,133,000 troops were mobilized and that the support troops multiple times that number. The army began to depart in early 612, and its size made it take 40 days for all of it to depart. The long line of soldiers stretched for about 300 km. The strength and losses may have been deflated by

historians.

Campaign in Manchuria

gave up the buffer zone that he had acquired after the war of 598, as the area was not suitable to face such a vast army. The Goguryeo troops retreated behind what is now known as the

Liao River The Liao River () is the principal river in southern Northeast China, and one of the seven main river systems in China. Its name derived from the Liao region, a historical name for southern Manchuria, from which the Liaoning province, Liaodong ...

. A fortunate event for Goguryeo was that the river melted much sooner than usual. By the time Emperor Yang arrived, the ice had all melted. Undaunted, Emperor Yang ordered the construction of three bridges across the river. The bridges however, were too short to reach the opposite bank in another fortunate turn of events for the defenders, and Goguryeo's attack successfully held off the first assault. After the extension of the bridges however, the Sui forces succeeded in crossing the river, and the army surrounded the fortresses of Goguryeo. Emperor Yang ordered his generals before the campaigns not to make individual decisions regarding the movement of troops, but to report to him to receive instruction. The order hampered Sui strategy throughout the campaign. During the strategically important campaign against Yodong fortress, the general commanding the siege had to send a messenger to the emperor for the approval of the surrender. When the messenger returned, Goguryeo's troops had again become ready to defend the fortress. Exploiting that flaw in the Sui system, Yodong and other castles of Goguryeo continued to hold on. By June, five months after the start of the campaign, not a single castle, fortress, or citadel has fallen to Sui. Emperor Yang felt that a fundamental change in strategy was needed to seize control of Korea.

Campaign against Pyongyang

The new strategy was to keep the fortresses of Goguryeo in

Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...

at bay, while sending a contingent of army and navy to take

Pyongyang Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populat ...

, Goguryeo's capital. An army contingent, allegedly with a strength of 305,000, and a naval fleet of some 120,000 were dispatched.

Naval assault

The Sui navy reached the bay of the

Daedong River The Taedong River (Chosŏn'gŭl: ) is a large river in North Korea. The river rises in the Rangrim Mountains of the country's north where it then flows southwest into Korea Bay at Namp'o.Suh, Dae-Sook (1987) "North Korea in 1986: Strengthening ...

before the army. Seeing that the Sui army had not arrived yet, Go Geonmu, commander of the defence army of Goguryeo at Pyeongyang and brother of King Yeongyang, sent what few troops remained in the capital to engage the Sui navy in battle. After an engagement, feigning defeat, Goguryeo troops retreated into the city. The Sui naval commander, Lai Huni, considering it to be a chance to add to his merit, led a host of more than 40,000 to lay assault against Pyeongyang. When the Sui soldiers reached one of the outer castles, however, they found the wall empty and the gate open. Upon entering the castle, Lai, considering the engagement in the outskirts a decisive move of Goguryeo that failed, looted and destroyed the art and fortune of the outer castle. Once the looting of the castle started, the death-defying corps of Goguryeo, consisting of 500 troops, ambushed the Sui troops. Confused and disoriented, Lai ran to the fleet at the sea, his legion reduced to mere thousands.

Sui army's campaign

The army contingent, led by generals Yu Zhongwen and

Yuwen Shu Yuwen Shu (; died 616), courtesy name Botong (伯通), formally Duke Gong of Xu (許恭公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Sui dynasty. He was a confidant of Emperor Yang (Yang Guang) and was instrumental in Yang Guang's di ...

, had their own problems. While the supply could be transported safely within China, once it reached Goguryeo territory, there was a danger of ambush by

forces. Emperor Yang solved the problem by instructing each soldier to carry food for himself, which greatly increased each soldier's burden. Many resorted to discarding the food. By the time it had reached the

Yalu River The Yalu River, known by Koreans as the Amrok River or Amnok River, is a river on the border between North Korea and China. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between ...

, the army's shortage of provisions was acute. Yeongyang decided to assess the strength of the Sui army by ordering his Commander Field Marshal

Eulji Mundeok Eulji Mundeok (을지문덕) (Ulchi Mundok) was a military leader of early 7th century Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, who successfully defended Goguryeo against Sui China. He is often numbered among the greatest heroes in the mi ...

to fake a surrender and peace negotiation terms with the Sui generals. Generals Wu and Yuwen had their own secret order from Emperor Yang to seize Yeongyang or Eulji Mundeok if they should fall into their hands. However, the generals' advisers, notably the assistant director of the Right of the Department of State Affairs, Liu Shilong (劉士龍), convinced them it would be unwise to arrest negotiators from the opposing camp. They ultimately let Eulji return to Goguryeo and Yu Zhongwen later regretted his decision, attempting to lure Eulji Mundeok back. He sent a message that he wished to discuss things further but Eulji Mundeok, aware of Wu's intentions, did not comply. The two generals argued about the next course of action, with Yu Zhongwen arguing strongly that Eulji Mundeok should be pursued. They did agree that the Goguryeo capital should be captured. Accordingly, the Sui troops began advancing south towards

Pyeongyang Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 population ...

. Eulji Mundeok maneuvered the

troops so that they engaged the Sui army seven times a day, each time faking defeat and retreat. The strategy would draw the Sui army deeper south with the perception of victory. The Sui army eventually advanced to about 20 km from

. Yu Zhongwen later recognized that his advancing troops were suffering from exhaustion, and that fortifications of

made for an impossible campaign. Yu was caught in a dilemma and could not decide on advance or retreat. Eulji Mundeok sent him for the occasion a poem:

Your divine plans have plumbed the heavens; Your subtle reckoning has spanned the earth. You win every battle, your military merit is great. Why then not be content and stop the war?
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.

When no response came, Eulji sent a representative. The plan now was to offer Emperor Yeongyang to Emperor Yang escort to submission if the Sui army would withdraw. Seizing the opportunity to retreat, Yu withdrew his troops towards Sui.

Battle of Salsu River

When Sui army had reached Salsu (thought to be the present-day Chongchon River), Goguryeo charged the remaining Sui army. Eulji Mundeok defended fortresses against the Sui army and navy for several months and destroyed the Sui troops while retreating into Goguryeo territory. An attack at Salsu (Chongchon River) inflicted massive casualties on the Sui forces. When the Sui army had reached Salsu, Eulji Mundeok's force slaughtering them. The historical text records that Sui soldiers had to run almost 200 km that day to escape death. The Battle of Salsu contributed to the massive overall casualty figure for Sui during the campaign. Emperor Yang crossed the Liao River to attack Goguryeo. Of the initial 305,000 men, only 2,700 returned.''

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...

'', vol. 181.''

Samguk Sagi ''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...

'', vol. 20 .

Third Invasion in 613

Emperor Yang invaded Liaodong again the following year (613), but was again obliged to retreat without success. While Emperor Yang was away,

Yang Xuangan Yang Xuangan (楊玄感 ''Yáng Xuángǎn''; died 613) was a Chinese military general and politician who lived during the Sui Dynasty. He was the son of Yang Su, a military general and politician himself, as he knew that Emperor Yang was apprehe ...

, the son of Emperor Yang's prime minister

Yang Su Yang Su (楊素; died August 31, 606), courtesy name Chudao (處道), formally Duke Jingwu of Chu (楚景武公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Sui dynasty whose authority eventually became nearly as supreme as the emperor' ...

, fomented rebellion against Emperor Yang. Fearing attack from two fronts, Emperor Yang was forced to retreat and use his army to put down Yang Xuangan's rebellion.

Fourth Invasion in 614

After crushing the revolt, Emperor Yang invaded

again in 614. He managed to breach Goguryeo's first line of defence without capturing the frontier fortress, but he could not advance far beyond Liao River because of Goguryeo's constant attacks and obstruction to his supply lines. Yeongyang, seeing a chance to end the exhausting wars, offered peace and returned Yang Xuangan's associate Husi Zheng (斛斯政), who had fled to Goguryeo after Yang Xuangan's rebellion, to Sui. Perceiving the little success in Goguryeo and the increasing internal discontent in China, Emperor Yang accepted Yeongyang's offer of peace and withdrew Sui troops from Goguryeo's territory. However, the king of Goguryeo never showed up to swear allegiance, which infuriated Emperor Yang, who was dissuaded only with difficulty from launching another invasion against Goguryeo.

Aftermath

The losses that Sui suffered, in terms of lives and resources and consequently in the trust the people had in the Sui state, contributed to the fall of the Sui Dynasty. Peasants, farmers, soldiers, aristocrats, and landlords rose up against the emperor along with many of the dynasty's military officers. Yangdi moved the capital to the south in

Yangzhou Yangzhou, postal romanization Yangchow, is a prefecture-level city in central Jiangsu Province (Suzhong), East China. Sitting on the north bank of the Yangtze, it borders the provincial capital Nanjing to the southwest, Huai'an to the north, ...

, but the revolts were too widespread.

's son,

Yuwen Huaji Yuwen Huaji (; died March 22, 619) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician of the Sui Dynasty who, in 618, led a coup against and murdered Emperor Yang of Sui. He subsequently declared Emperor Yang's nephew Yang Hao emperor and ...

, became a powerful Sui general who led a successful coup against Yangdi and personally murdered him. That would complete the

transition from Sui to Tang The transition from Sui to Tang (613–628) was the period of Chinese history between the end of the Sui dynasty and the start of the Tang dynasty. The Sui dynasty's territories were carved into a handful of short-lived states by its officials, ...

, as the Duke of Tang proclaimed himself emperor of a new dynasty.

References

Sources

* Asmolov, Konstantin V. "The System of Military Activity of Koguryô." ''Korea Journal'' 32:2 (Summer 1992): 103–116. * Gabriel, Richard A. and Boose, Donald W. "The Korean Way of War: Salsu River." In Richard A. Gabriel and Donald W. Boose. ''The Great Battles of Antiquity: A Strategic and Tactical Guide to Great Battles that Shaped the Development of War''. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1994. * Graff, David A., Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900.