Gender polarization
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sociology Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of Interpersonal ties, social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. The term sociol ...
, gender polarization is a concept created by American psychologist Sandra Bem which states that societies tend to define
femininity Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and Gender roles, roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as Social construction of gender, socially constructed, and there is also s ...
and
masculinity Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as Social construction of gender, socially constructed, and there i ...
as polar opposite
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
s, such that male-acceptable behaviors and attitudes are not seen as appropriate for women, and vice versa.Christine Monnier, 2011, Global Sociology
Gendered Society – Basic Concepts
, Retrieved August 22, 2014, "... Another aspect of such a list of gender traits is that there is no overlap ... societies and cultures create polarized version of gender where one is the opposite of the other...Popular culture is indeed a major conveyor ... "
Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration, Robyn Ryle, Pine Forge Press, 2012

Retrieved August 22, 2014, Chapter 4 page 135, "..Gender polarization ... describes the way in which behaviors and attitudes that are viewed as appropriate for men are seen as inappropriate for women and vice versa...."
The theory is an extension of the
sex and gender distinction Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inheri ...
in sociology in which
sex Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inheri ...
refers to the biological differences between men and women, while
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
refers to the cultural differences between them, such that ''gender'' describes the "socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women". Programmes and Projects > Gender, Women and Health))">''What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?'' (World Health Organization (WHO > Programmes and Projects > Gender, Women and Health))
as accessed August 24, 2010 (no author or date & boldfacing omitted).
According to Bem, gender polarization begins when natural sex differences are exaggerated in culture; for example, women have less hair than men, and men have more muscles than women, but these physical differences are exaggerated culturally when women remove hair from their faces and legs and armpits, and when men engage in body building exercises to emphasize their muscle mass.Sandra Lipsitz Bem, A Nation Divided: Diversity, Inequality, and Community in American Society, edited by Phyllis Moen, Donna Dempster-McClain, Henry A. Walker, Cornell University Press, 1999
Gender, Sexuality and Inequality: When Many Become One, Who is the One and What Happens to the Others?
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (page 78) "...Gender polarization at the simplest level is just the cultural exaggeration of whatever sex differences exist naturally ..."
She explained that gender polarization goes further, when cultures construct "differences from scratch to make the sexes even more different from one another than they would otherwise be", perhaps by dictating specific hair styles for men and women, which are noticeably distinct, or separate clothing styles for men and women. When genders become polarized, according to the theory, there is no overlap, no shared behaviors or attitudes between men and women; rather, they are distinctly opposite. She argued that these distinctions become so "all-encompassing" that they "pervade virtually every aspect of human existence", not just hairstyles and clothing but how men and women express emotion and experience sexual desire.1993, Yale University, The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality, Sandra L. Bem
Gender polarization
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see chapter 4 page 80:) "...gender polarization,...Social life is so linked to this distinction that the all-encompassing division between male and female would still pervade virtually every aspect of human existence..."
She argued that male-female differences are "superimposed on so many aspects of the social world that a cultural connection is thereby forged between sex and virtually every other aspect of human experience".Greenbaum, Vicky. "Seeing through the Lenses of Gender: Beyond Male/Female Polarization". English Journal 88.3 (January 1999): 96–99
Seeing through the Lenses of Gender: Beyond Male/Female Polarization
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (Bem) "...gender polarization: ... superimposed on so many aspects of the social world that a cultural connection is thereby forged between sex and virtually every other aspect of human experience..."
Bem saw gender polarization as an organizing principle upon which many of the basic institutions of a society are built.Polygendered and Ponytailed: The Dilemma of Femininity and the Female Athlete, 2009, Women's Press, Dayna B. Daniels
Gender polarization
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see page 29) "...Gender polarization can be defined as the organizing principle upon which many cultures and their social institutions have been created...
For example, rules based on gender polarization have been codified into law. In western society in the fairly recent past, such rules have prevented women from voting, holding political office, going to school, owning property, serving in the armed forces, entering certain professions, or playing specific sports. For example, the first modern Olympics was a male-only sporting event from which women were excluded, and this has been identified as a prime example of gender polarization. In addition, the term has been applied to
literary criticism A genre of arts criticism, literary criticism or literary studies is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical analysis of literature's ...
. According to Scott Coltrane and Michele Adams, gender polarization begins early in childhood when girls are encouraged to prefer pink over blue, and when boys are encouraged to prefer toy trucks over dolls, and the male-female distinction is communicated to children in countless ways.Gender and Families, Scott Coltrane, Michele Adams, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008
Engendering Children (chapter)
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (page 183+) "...Gender polarization organizes the daily lives of children from the moment they are born: pink vs. blue to dolls vs. trucks...."
Children learn by observing others and by direct tutelage what they "can and cannot do in terms of gendered behavior", according to Elizabeth Lindsey and Walter Zakahi.Sex Differences and Similarities in Communication, edited by Kathryn Dindia, Daniel J. Canary, chapter by A. Elizabeth Lindsey and Walter R. Zakahi
Perceptions of Men and Women Departing from the Conventional Sex-Role
Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see page 273+) "...Initiation to gender polarization begins early in life. ..."
Bem argued that gender polarization defines mutually exclusive scripts for being male and female. The scripts can have a powerful influence on how a person develops; for example, if a person is a male, then he will likely grow to develop specific ways of looking at the world, with certain behaviors seen as 'masculine', and learn to dress, walk, talk, and even think in a socially-approved way for men. Further, any deviation from these scripts was seen as problematic, possibly defined as "immoral acts" which flout religious customs, or seen as "psychologically pathological". Bem argued that because of past polarization, women were often restricted to family-oriented roles in the private sphere, while men were seen as professional representatives in the
public sphere The public sphere () is an area in social relation, social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion, Social influence, influence political action. A "Public" is "of or c ...
. Cultures vary substantially by what is considered to be appropriate for masculine and feminine roles, and by how emotions are expressed.


Traditional Gender Roles

Traditional
gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
s refer to societal expectations and norms that dictate people's behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities based on their perceived sex or gender. Throughout history, these roles have often been rigid and dichotomous with men expected to be providers and assertive and women were supposed to do the caregiving and domestic roles. These roles not only shape individuals' behavior but also influence societal institutions such as family dynamics, employment opportunities, and legal rights. Despite evolving understandings of gender, traditional gender roles continue to influence expectations and perceptions in many cultures, impacting individuals' self-expression and opportunities.


Historical Examples

Ancient Greece Men were primarily seen as active citizens, engaged in public life, politics, and warfare. They held legal rights, participated in philosophical discussions, and were considered the heads of households. On the other hand, women were mostly confined to the private sphere to focus on domestic duties and child-rearing. Their roles were restricted and limited their participation in public life and education. This strict division of roles and expectations created a clear distinction between masculinity and femininity. Renaissance Roles were predominantly the same as in Ancient Greece however there were some differences. The Renaissance brought some advancements in women's education and artistic endeavors but these were often exceptions rather than the norm. For example,
Artemisia Gentileschi Artemisia Lomi Gentileschi ( ; ; 8 July 1593) was an Italian Baroque painter. Gentileschi is considered among the most accomplished 17th century, 17th-century artists, initially working in the style of Caravaggio. She was producing professional ...
was an Italian baroque painter and is considered one of the most influential artists in a male-dominated sphere. Similarly,
Laura Cereta Laura Cereta (September 1469 – 1499) was one of the most notable humanist and feminist writers of fifteenth-century Italy. Cereta was the first to put women’s issues and her friendships with women front and center in her work. Cereta wrote in ...
was an Italian humanist who wrote mainly literary works advocating for women's education and intellectual pursuits. Enlightenment The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and individual rights initially sparked discussions on gender equality, yet traditional roles largely persisted. Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution saw a transformation in work, with more women entering factories and mills, particularly in textile industries. While this provided new employment opportunities for women outside the home, they often faced poor working conditions and low wages. Despite these changes, women's roles in the public sphere remained limited, and gender polarization persisted, reinforcing distinct expectations and constraints based on gender. Suffrage Movement Gender polarization underwent significant changes during the Suffrage Movement as there was advocating for women's right to vote. This challenged traditional gender roles and norms by demanding political equality. World Wars Women's involvement in World War I and II further disrupted conventional roles as they took on jobs traditionally held by men while men were at war. These shifts contributed to changing perceptions of women's capabilities and roles in society. However, the post-war period saw a return to traditional gender roles, highlighting the enduring nature of gender polarization.


Evolutionary Perspective

In hunter-gatherer societies, gender polarization was rooted in the division of labor based on biological differences. Men typically engaged in hunting and providing food and protection. Women focused on gathering, childcare, and domestic tasks. These roles were influenced by physical attributes. For example, men's strength and stamina suited them for hunting while women's reproductive roles and gathering skills were valued. This division of labor reinforced distinct gender roles with men and women having
separate spheres Terms such as separate spheres and domestic–public dichotomy refer to a social phenomenon within modern societies that feature, to some degree, an empirical separation between a domestic or private sphere and a public or social sphere. This ...
of activity and responsibility. Overall, this established an early form of gender polarization based on biological differences and societal needs.


Contemporary Gender Polarization

Third-wave feminism Third-wave feminism is a feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth-wave feminism, fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second-wave feminism, second wave, Generation X, Gen X ...
has critiqued traditional gender binaries which challenges the strict categorization of masculinity and femininity. This movement emphasizes fluidity and intersectionality and advocates for a broader understanding of gender identities and expressions. There has been significant progress in LGBTQ+ rights and acceptance which also challenges societal norms around gender and sexuality. However, debates on gender polarization persist in today's day and age with discussions often center on representation, stereotypes, and the impact of gender norms on individuals and society at large. Intersex
Intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
individuals challenge the traditional binary understanding of gender polarization which categorizes people strictly as male or female based on biological sex characteristics. Intersex people are born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female such as variations in chromosomes, genitalia, and/or reproductive anatomy. Intersectionality Different cultural norms and values can either reinforce or challenge traditional gender roles, adding layers of complexity to individual identities. Socioeconomic status significantly impacts gender experiences, with economic disparities often amplifying gender inequalities. Within marginalized communities, gender polarization can be especially pronounced as individuals navigate multiple layers of discrimination and exclusion.


See also

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Gender binary The gender binary (also known as gender binarism) is the classification of gender into two distinct forms of masculine and feminine, whether by social system, Culture, cultural belief, or both simultaneously. Most cultures use a gender binary, ...
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Gender discrimination Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is in ...
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Gender identity Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent and consistent with the in ...
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Gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
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Heterosexuality Heterosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or Human sexual activity, sexual behavior between people of the opposite sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, heterosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or ...
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Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus ''Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus'' (1992) is a book written by American author and relationship counselor John Gray. The book states that most common relationship problems between men and women are a result of fundamental psychological ...
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Separate spheres Terms such as separate spheres and domestic–public dichotomy refer to a social phenomenon within modern societies that feature, to some degree, an empirical separation between a domestic or private sphere and a public or social sphere. This ...
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Stereotypes In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalization, generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can ...


References

{{Sexual identities Gender-related stereotypes Gender roles Dichotomies Social constructionism