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The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty that ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235, during the Roman imperial period. The dynasty was founded by the emperor Septimius Severus (), who rose to power after the Year of the Five Emperors as the victor of the civil war of 193–197, and his wife, Julia Domna. After the short reigns and assassinations of their two sons, Caracalla () and Geta (), who succeeded their father in the government of the empire, Julia Domna's relatives themselves assumed power by raising Elagabalus () and then Severus Alexander () to the imperial office. The dynasty's control over the empire was interrupted by the joint reigns of Macrinus () and his son Diadumenian (). The dynasty's women, including Julia Domna, the mother of Caracalla and Geta, and her nieces Julia Soaemias and
Julia Mamaea Julia Avita Mamaea or Julia Mamaea (14 or 29 August around 182 – 235) was a Syrian noble woman and member of the Severan dynasty. She was the mother of Roman emperor Alexander Severus and remained one of his chief advisors throughout his ...
, the mothers respectively of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, and their own mother, Julia Maesa, were all powerful '' augustae'' and instrumental in securing their sons' imperial positions. Although Septimius Severus restored peace following the upheaval of the late 2nd century, the dynasty was disturbed by highly unstable family relationships and constant political turmoil, which foreshadowed the imminent Crisis of the Third Century. In particular, the discord between Caracalla and Geta and the tension between Elagabalus and Severus Alexander added to the turmoil.


History


Septimius Severus (193–211)

Lucius Septimius Severus was born in a family of Libyan- punic equestrian rank in
Leptis Magna Leptis or Lepcis Magna, also known by other names Other often refers to: * Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy Other or The Other may also refer to: Film and television * ''The Other'' (1913 film), a German silent fil ...
, the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis, now in Libya. He rose through military service to
consular A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...
rank under the later emperors of the Antonine dynasty. He married
Syrian Syrians ( ar, سُورِيُّون, ''Sūriyyīn'') are an Eastern Mediterranean ethnic group indigenous to the Levant. They share common Levantine Semitic roots. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Syrian people is a blend of both indi ...
noblewoman Julia Domna and had two children with her: Caracalla and Geta. Julia Domna also held a prominent political role in government during her husband's reign. Severus was proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during the political unrest that followed the death of
Commodus Commodus (; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 177 to 192. He served jointly with his father Marcus Aurelius from 176 until the latter's death in 180, and thereafter he reigned alone until his assassination. ...
and secured sole rule over the empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus, at the Battle of Lugdunum. Severus fought a successful war against the
Parthians Parthian may be: Historical * A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran * Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD) * Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language * Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by ...
, campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain and rebuilt
Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall ( la, Vallum Aelium), also known as the Roman Wall, Picts' Wall, or ''Vallum Hadriani'' in Latin, is a former defensive fortification of the Roman province of Britannia, begun in AD 122 in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. R ...
. In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he was popular with the commoners and with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, his
praetorian prefect The praetorian prefect ( la, praefectus praetorio, el, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders be ...
, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, was growing in influence, but he would be executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist
Papinian Aemilius Papinianus (; grc, Αἰμίλιος Παπινιανός; 142 CE–212 CE), simply rendered as Papinian () in English, was a celebrated Roman jurist, ''magister libellorum'', attorney general (''advocatus fisci'') and, after the dea ...
, a relative of Julia Domna. Severus continued official persecution of Christians and Jews, both groups being alone in not assimilating their beliefs to the official
syncretistic Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he had elevated as co-emperors in the years preceding his death. The growing hostility between the brothers was initially buffered by Julia Domna's mediation.


Caracalla (198–217)

The eldest son of Severus, he was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum, Gaul. "Caracalla" was a nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore even while he slept. Years before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co-'' augustus'' with his father, and later his younger brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter less than a year after their father's death. Reigning alone, Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty by authorising numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. Caracalla was also indifferent to the full responsibilities of the empire during his reign and handed them over to his mother, Julia Domna, who took part in a provincial tour and military campaign and accompanied her son. He campaigned with indifferent success against the
Alamanni The Alemanni or Alamanni, were a confederation of Germanic tribes * * * on the Upper Rhine River. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Caracalla of 213, the Alemanni captured the in 260, and later expanded into pres ...
. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. He was assassinated en route to a campaign against the Parthians by a member of the Praetorian Guard.


Geta (209–211)

The younger son of Septimius Severus, Geta was made co-''augustus'' alongside his father and older brother Caracalla. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius () and his brother
Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus (15 December 130 – January/February 169) was Roman emperor from 161 until his death in 169, alongside his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius. He was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty. Verus' succession together with ...
() the previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severan brothers after their father's death. Geta was assassinated in their mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who then ruled as sole emperor.


Interlude: Macrinus (217–218)

Marcus Opelius Macrinus was born in 164 at
Caesarea in Mauretania Caesarea in Mauretania (Latin: ''Caesarea Mauretaniae'', meaning "Caesarea of Mauretania") was a Roman colony in Roman-Berber North Africa. It was the capital of Mauretania Caesariensis and is now called Cherchell, in modern Algeria. In the ...
(now
Cherchell Cherchell (Arabic: شرشال) is a town on Algeria's Mediterranean coast, west of Algiers. It is the seat of Cherchell District in Tipaza Province. Under the names Iol and Caesarea, it was formerly a Roman colony and the capital of the k ...
, Algeria). Although coming from a humble background not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty; he rose through the imperial household until, under Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of the cruelty and the treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On April 8, 217, Caracalla was assassinated travelling to Carrhae. Three days later, Macrinus was declared ''augustus''. His most significant early decision was to make peace with the Parthian Empire, but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus. After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet the army of Elagabalus near Antioch. Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon but his authority was lost. He was betrayed and executed after a reign of only 14 months. Marcus Opelius Diadumenianus (known as Diadumenian) was the son of Macrinus, born in 208. He was given the imperial rank of ''caesar'' in 217, when his father became ''augustus''. After his father's defeat outside Antioch, he tried to escape east to Parthia but was captured and killed.


Elagabalus (218–222)

Elagabalus was born Varius Avitus Bassianus in 204 and became known later as Marcus Aurelius Antonius. The name "Elagabalus" followed the Latin nomenclature for the Syrian sun god
Elagabal Elagabalus (), Aelagabalus, Heliogabalus, () or simply Elagabal (Aramaic: 𐡁𐡋‎𐡄𐡂‎𐡀𐡋 ''ʾĕlāhgabāl'' or 𐡁𐡋‎𐡄𐡀𐡂‎𐡀𐡋 ''ʾĕlāhaʾgabāl''; Arabic: إله الجبل ''Ilah al-Jabal'', "mountain god") ...
, of whom he had become a priest at an early age. Elagabal was represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl. Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa, Julia Domna's sister and sister-in-law of Emperor Septimius Severus, arranged for the restoration of the Severan dynasty and persuaded soldiers from the Gallic Third Legion, which was stationed near Emesa, by using her enormous wealth as well as the claim that Caracalla had slept with her daughter and that the boy was his bastard to swear fealty to Elagabalus. He was later invited alongside his mother and daughters to the military camp, clad in imperial purple and crowned as emperor by the soldiers. His reign in Rome has long been known for being outrageous although the historical sources are few and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals, married his male lover (who was later referred to as the "empress's husband") and married a Vestal Virgin called Aquilia Severa. Dio suggests that he was transgender and offered large sums to the physician who could give him female genitalia. Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behaviour could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his young cousin Severus Alexander as ''caesar'' (and thus the nominal future ''augustus''). Alexander was popular with the troops, who increasingly objected to Elagabalus's behaviour. Jealous of this popularity, Elagabalus removed the title of ''caesar'' from his cousin, which enraged the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus, his mother, and other advisors close to him were assassinated in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny.


Alexander Severus (222–235)

Born Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus in around 208, Alexander was adopted as heir apparent by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, Elagabalus, at the urging of Julia Maesa, who was the grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for the emperor's acclamation by the Third ''Gallica'' Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was 14, a rumour went around the city's troops that Alexander had been killed, ironically triggering his ascension as emperor. Elagabalus was said to have initiated the rumour or attempted to murder Alexander.Cassius Dio 80.19-20, Herodian 5.8.5 The 18-year-old Elagabalus and his mother were taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in the river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, which proclaimed Alexander Severus as Augustus. Ruling from the age of 14 under the influence of his mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, Alexander restored to some extent the moderation that had characterised the rule of Septimius Severus. The rising strength of the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...
() heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in the 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a German invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by his own troops, whose regard the 27-year-old had lost during the affair. His death was the epochal event beginning the troubled Crisis of the Third Century, where a succession of briefly-reigning military emperors, rebellious generals, and counter-claimants presided over governmental chaos, civil war, general instability and great economic disruption. He was succeeded by Maximinus Thrax (), the first of a series of weak emperors, each ruling on average only 2 to 3 years, which ended 50 years later with the Tetrarchy instituted in the reign of
Diocletian Diocletian (; la, Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, grc, Διοκλητιανός, Diokletianós; c. 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed ''Iovius'', was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Gaius Valerius Diocles ...
.().


Women

The women of the Severan dynasty, beginning with Septimius Severus's wife Julia Domna, were notably active in advancing the careers of their male relatives. Other notable women who exercised power behind the scenes included Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, and Maesa's two daughters Julia Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus, and Julia Avita Mamaea, mother of Severus Alexander. Also of interest, Publia
Fulvia Plautilla Publia Fulvia Plautilla (c. 185/around 188/189 – 211) was the wife of the Roman emperor Caracalla, her paternal second cousin. After her father was condemned for treason, she was exiled and eventually killed, possibly on Caracalla's orders. ...
, daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, the Prefect Commander of the Praetorian Guard, was married to but despised by Caracalla, who had her exiled and eventually executed.


Dynastic timeline

ImageSize = width:800 height:60 PlotArea = top: 0 width:790 left:10 bottom:20 Colors = id:yellow value:rgb(1,1,0.7) # light yellow id:red value:rgb(1,0.7,0.7) # light red id:green value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) # light green id:blue value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light blue id:cyan value:rgb(0.7,1,1) # light cyan id:purple value:rgb(1,0.7,1) # light purple id:grey value:gray(0.8) # grey Period = from:193 till:235 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:195 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:193 BarData= bar:barre1 PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) shift:(0,0) bar:barre1 from: 193 till: 211 color:purple text: Septimius Severus from: 211 till: 217 color:yellow text: Caracalla from: 217 till: 218 color:blue text: Mc from: 218 till: 222 color:red text: Elagabalus from: 222 till: 235 color:green text: Severus Alexander


See also

*
Severan art Severan art is art production by the Roman Empire under the Severan dynasty, usually taken as running from 193 to 235, through the emperors Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Official Roman art of the military ana ...


References


Bibliography

*
Anthony Birley Anthony Richard Birley (8 October 1937 – 19 December 2020) was a British ancient historian, archaeologist and academic. He was the son of Margaret Isabel (Goodlet) and historian and archaeologist Eric Birley. Early life and education Anthony ...
., ''Septimius Severus: The African Emperor,'' Routledge, London, 1999. *Markus Handy, ''Die Severer und das Heer'', Berlin, Verlag Antike, 2009 (Studien zur Alten Geschichte, 10). *
Harold Mattingly Harold Mattingly (24 December 1884 – 26 January 1964) was a British classical scholar, specialising in art history and numismatics. His interests included the history of Ancient Rome, Etruscan coins, Etruscan and Roman currency, and the Roman ...
, Edward A. Sydenham, ''The Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part I, Pertinax to Geta'', London, Spink & Son, 1936. *Harold Mattingly, Edward A. Sydenham,
C. H. V. Sutherland Carol Humphrey Vivian Sutherland, CBE (5 May 1908 – 14 May 1986), known as Humphrey Sutherland, was an English numismatist. Sutherland was born in Merton Park, Surrey. He was the younger brother of the painter Graham Sutherland. He was ...
, ''The Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part II, Marcinus to Pupienus'', London, Spink & Son, 1938. *Simon Swain, Stephen Harrison and Jas Elsner (editors), ''Severan culture'', Cambridge University Press, 2007.


Further reading

* Alföldy, Géza. 1974. "The Crisis of the Third Century as Seen by Contemporaries." ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'' 15:89–111. * Benario, Herbert W. 1958. "Rome of the Severi." ''Latomus'' 17:712–722. * Birley, Eric. 1969. "Septimius Severus and the Roman Army." ''Epigraphische Studien'' 8:63–82. * Campbell, Brian. 2005. "The Severan Dynasty." In ''Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire (A.D. 193–337).'' Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron, 1–27. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. * De Blois, Lukas. 2003. "The Perception of Roman Imperial Authority in Herodian’s Work." In ''The Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power.'' Edited by Lukas De Blois, Paul Erdkamp, Olivier Hekster, Gerda de Kleijn, and S. Mols, 148–156. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. * De Sena, Eric C., ed. 2013. ''The Roman Empire During the Severan Dynasty: Case Studies in History, Art, Architecture, Economy and Literature.'' American Journal of Ancient History 6–8. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias. * Langford, Julie. 2013. ''Maternal Megalomania: Julia Domna and the Imperial Politics of Motherhood.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. * Manders, Erika. 2012. ''Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284.'' Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill * Moscovich, M. James. 2004. "Cassius Dio’s Palace Sources for the Reign of Septimius Severus." ''Historia'' 53.3: 356–368. * Ward-Perkins, John Bryan. 1993. ''The Severan Buildings of Lepcis Magna: An Architectural Survey.'' London: Society for Libyan Studies.


External links


The Severan Women
{{Authority control Roman imperial dynasties 3rd century in the Roman Empire 193 establishments 235 disestablishments 190s establishments in the Roman Empire 230s disestablishments in the Roman Empire