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Safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius'') is a highly branched,
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...
, thistle-like
annual plant An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical ...
in the family Asteraceae. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and was used by the early Spanish colonies along the
Rio Grande The Rio Grande ( and ), known in Mexico as the Río Bravo del Norte or simply the Río Bravo, is one of the principal rivers (along with the Colorado River) in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The length of the Rio G ...
as a substitute for saffron. Plants are tall with globular flower heads having yellow, orange, or red flowers. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having seasonal rain. It grows a deep taproot which enables it to thrive in such environments.


Biology


Plant morphology

Safflower is a fast growing, erect, winter/spring-growing
annual herb An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical lo ...
, that resembles a thistle. Originating from a leaf rosette emerges a branched central stem (also referred to as terminal stem), when day length and temperature increase. The main shoot reaches heights of . The plant also develops a strong taproot, growing as deep as . First lateral branches develop, once the main stem is about high. These lateral branches can then branch again to produce secondary and tertiary branches. The chosen variety as well as growing conditions influence the extent of branching. The elongated and serrated leaves reach lengths of and widths of and run down the stem. The upper leaves that form the
bract In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s are usually short, stiff and ovate, terminating in a spine. Buds are borne on the ends of branches, and each composite flower head (
capitulum capitulum (plural capitula) may refer to: *the Latin word for chapter ** an index or list of chapters at the head of a gospel manuscript ** a short reading in the Liturgy of the Hours *** derived from which, it is the Latin for the assembly known ...
) contains 20–180 individual
florets This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...
. Depending on variety, crop management and growing conditions, each plant can develop 3–50 or more flower heads of diameter. Flowering commences with terminal flower heads (central stem), followed sequentially by primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary branch flower heads. Individual florets usually flower for 3–4 days. Commercial varieties are largely self-pollinated. Flowers are commonly yellow, orange and red, but white and cream coloured forms exist. The dicarpelled, epigynous ovary forms the ovule. The safflower plant then produces
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
s. Each flower head commonly contains 15–50 seeds; however, the number can exceed 100. The shell content of the seeds varies between 30-60%, the oil content of the seeds varies between 20-40%.


Plant development

Safflower usually emerges 1–3 weeks after sowing and grows slower under low temperatures. Germination of safflower is
epigeal Epigeal, epigean, epigeic and epigeous are biological terms describing an organism's activity above the soil surface. In botany, a seed is described as showing epigeal germination when the cotyledons of the germinating seed expand, throw off the ...
. The first true leaves emerging form a rosette. This stage occurs in winter with short daylength and cold temperature, as the safflower can tolerate frosts up to during the rosette stage. When temperature and daylength start to increase, the central stem begins to elongate and branch, growing more rapidly. Early sowing allows more time for developing a large rosette and more extensive branching, which results in a higher yield. Flowering is mainly influenced by daylength. The period from the end of flowering to maturity is usually 4 weeks. The total period from sowing to harvest maturity varies with variety, location, sowing time and growing conditions; for June or July sowings, it may be about 26–31 weeks. Both wild and cultivated forms have a diploid set of 2n = 24 chromosomes. Crossings with ''Carthamus palaestinus'', ''Carthamus oxyacanthus'' and ''Carthamus persicus'' can produce fertile offspring.


History

Safflower is one of humanity's oldest crops. It was first cultivated in Mesopotamia, with archaeological traces possibly dating as early as 2500 BC. Chemical analysis of ancient Egyptian textiles dated to the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC) identified dyes made from safflower, and garlands made from safflowers were found in the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun. John Chadwick reports that the Greek name for safflower (, ) occurs many times in
Linear B Linear B was a syllabic script used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1400 BC. It is descended from ...
tablets, distinguished into two kinds: a white safflower (ka-na-ko re-u-ka, , ), which was measured, and red (ka-na-ko e-ru-ta-ra, , ) which was weighed. "The explanation is that there are two parts of the plant which can be used; the pale seeds and the red florets." The early Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande in New Mexico used safflower as a substitute for saffron in traditional recipes. An heirloom variety originating in
Corrales, New Mexico Corrales is a village in Sandoval County, New Mexico, United States. First farmed by Tiquex Pueblo people, chosen due to its proximity to the Rio Grande, as documented by Hispano farmers of Nuevo México in the late 1500s. Despite being a part ...
, called "Corrales Azafran", is still cultivated and used as a saffron substitute in New Mexican cuisine.


Cultivation


Climate

Safflower prefers high temperatures and grows best at . It tolerates , but there are also some varieties which grow under very low temperatures. Safflower is cultivated in different seasons: as a winter crop in south central India, as an early summer crop in California and as a mid-summer crop in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Minimum length of the growing season is 120 and 200 days for summer and winter cultivars, respectively. Plant performance is highly dependent on the different planting dates in terms of temperature and day length. Winter hard varieties only form a rosette in late fall and elongates in spring. In early stages, safflower tolerates humidity but after bud stage the danger of a Botrytis blight infestation increases Safflower is drought tolerant. The tap root makes moisture from deep soil layers available. Additionally, this tolerance can also be explained by the higher water use efficiency compared to other oil crops such as linseed and mustard. Shortly before and during maximum flowering water requirements are the highest. Beside drought tolerance, all parts of the plant are sensitive to moisture in terms of diseases. In the case of excessive water supply, it is susceptible to root rot. Therefore, many varieties are not suitable in irrigated agriculture especially on soils with danger of waterlogging. Safflower tolerates wind and hail better than cereals. It stays erect and can retain the seeds in the head.


Soil

Safflower prefers well-drained, neutral, fertile and deep soils. It can adapt well to soil pH (pH 5-8) and tolerates salinity. Safflower can be well grown on different soil types, with water supply as its main driving factor for suitability, depending on climate and irrigation, and the resulting different water regimes of the different soil types. Therefore cultivation on shallow soils and especially on soils with danger of waterlogging is not suitable. The deep rooting promotes water and air movement and improves the soil quality for subsequent crops in a rotation. Nutrient requirements can be compared to wheat and barley, except nitrogen amendment should be increased by 20%. Therefore, soils with an adequate nitrogen supply are favorable.


Agricultural practice


Crop rotation and sowing

Safflower is frequently grown in crop rotation with small grains, fallow and annual
legumes A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock fo ...
. Close rotation with crops susceptible to '' Sclerotinia sclerotiorum'' should be avoided (e.g.
sunflower The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a large annual forb of the genus ''Helianthus'' grown as a crop for its edible oily seeds. Apart from cooking oil production, it is also used as livestock forage (as a meal or a silage plant), as ...
, canola,
mustard plant The mustard plant is any one of several plant species in the genera ''Brassica'' and ''Sinapis'' in the family Brassicaceae (the mustard family). Mustard seed is used as a spice. Grinding and mixing the seeds with water, vinegar, or other liqui ...
and
pea The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
). A four-year rotation is recommended to reduce disease pressure. Seeds should be sown in spring as early as soil temperature is exceeded, to take advantage of the full growing season. If wireworms were a problem in the field in previous seasons, a respective seed treatment is recommended. A planting depth between is optimal. Shallow seeding promotes uniform emergence resulting in a better stand. Seeding rate recommendations are around of live seed. Where lower seeding rates promote branching, a longer flowering period and later maturity and higher rates promote thicker stands with a higher disease incidence. Sufficient moisture is necessary for germination. Usually, row spacing between are chosen using similar drill settings as recommended for barley.


Management

The total N recommendation is . This should include credits based on previous crops and soil available N. For the latter, deeper positioned nutrients need to be taken into account as safflower will root deeper than small grains and therefore access nutrients unavailable to them. Safflower growing in soils low in phosphorus need to be fertilized. Up to of phosphate can be drill-applied safely. A weed control program is essential when growing safflower as it is a poor competitor with weeds during the rosette stage. Cultivation on fields with heavy infestation of perennial weeds is not recommended.


Harvest

Safflower is mature when most leaves have turned brown approximately 30 days after flowering. Seeds should fall from the head when rubbed. Rain and high humidity after maturity may cause the seeds to sprout on the head. Harvesting is usually done using a small-grain
combine harvester The modern combine harvester, or simply combine, is a versatile machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of grain crops. The name derives from its combining four separate harvesting operations—reaping, threshing, gathering, and winnow ...
. Moisture in seeds should not exceed 8% to allow for a safe, long-term storage. Drying can be done similar to sunflower. Temperatures must not exceed to prevent damage to the seed and ensure quality.


Pests

* Gram pod borer/capsule borer: ''
Helicoverpa armigera ''Helicoverpa armigera'' is a species of Lepidoptera in the family Noctuidae. It is known as the cotton bollworm, corn earworm, Old World (African) bollworm, or scarce bordered straw (the lattermost in the UK, where it is a migrant). The larvae f ...
'' * Safflower caterpillar: '' Perigaea capensis'' * Safflower aphid: ''
Uroleucon ''Uroleucon'' is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae. Most species feed on Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order A ...
carthami'' * Capsule fly/safflower bud fly: '' Acanthiophilus helianthi''


Diseases

Alternia spp. is one of the most prevalent diseases causing losses up to 50% in India. In a field trial in Switzerland, '' Botrytis cinerea'' was the most prevalent disease.


Production

In 2020, global production of safflower seeds was 653,030 tonnes, led by Kazakhstan with 35% of the world total (table). Other significant producers were Russia and Mexico, with 28% of world production combined.


Uses

Traditionally, the crop was grown for its seeds, and used for coloring and flavoring foods, in medicines, and making red (
carthamin Carthamin is a natural red pigment derived from safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius''), earlier known as carthamine.De Candolle, Alphonse. (1885.''Origin of cultivated plants.''D. Appleton & Co.: New York, p. 164. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. It is use ...
) and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper aniline
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
s became available. in


Safflower oil

For the last fifty years or so, the plant has been cultivated mainly for the vegetable oil extracted from its seeds. Safflower seed oil is flavorless and colorless. It is used mainly in cosmetics and as a
cooking oil Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic liquid fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavoring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and may be called edible oil. ...
, in salad dressing, and for the production of
margarine Margarine (, also , ) is a spread used for flavoring, baking, and cooking. It is most often used as a substitute for butter. Although originally made from animal fats, most margarine consumed today is made from vegetable oil. The spread was orig ...
. INCI nomenclature is ''Carthamus tinctorius''. There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds of oil: one high in monounsaturated fatty acid ( oleic acid) and the other high in polyunsaturated fatty acid ( linoleic acid). Currently the predominant edible oil market is for the former, which is lower in
saturated fat A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched c ...
s than olive oil. The latter is used in
paint Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or solid mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture. Paint can be made in many ...
ing in the place of
linseed oil Linseed oil, also known as flaxseed oil or flax oil (in its edible form), is a colourless to yellowish oil obtained from the dried, ripened seeds of the flax plant (''Linum usitatissimum''). The oil is obtained by pressing, sometimes followed by ...
, particularly with white paints, as it does not have the yellow tint which linseed oil possesses. In one review of small clinical trials, safflower oil consumption reduced blood low-density lipoprotein levels – a risk factor for
cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs include stroke, h ...
s – more than those seen from butter or
lard Lard is a semi-solid white fat product obtained by rendering the fatty tissue of a pig.Lard
entry in the o ...
consumption.


Flowers for human consumption

Safflower flowers are occasionally used in cooking as a cheaper substitute for saffron, sometimes referred to as "bastard saffron". The dried safflower petals are also used as a herbal tea variety.


Dye from flowers

Safflower petals contain one red and two yellow dyes. In coloring
textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
, dried safflower flowers are used as a natural
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
source for the orange-red pigment
carthamin Carthamin is a natural red pigment derived from safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius''), earlier known as carthamine.De Candolle, Alphonse. (1885.''Origin of cultivated plants.''D. Appleton & Co.: New York, p. 164. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. It is use ...
. Carthamin is also known, in the dye industry, as Carthamus Red or Natural Red 26. Yellow dye from safflower is known as Carthamus yellow or Natural Yellow 5. One of the yellow pigments is fugitive and will wash away in cold water. The dye is suitable for cotton, which takes up the red dye, and silk, which takes up the yellow and red color yielding orange. No mordant is required. In
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, dyers have long utilised a technique of producing a bright red to orange-red dye (known as ''
carthamin Carthamin is a natural red pigment derived from safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius''), earlier known as carthamine.De Candolle, Alphonse. (1885.''Origin of cultivated plants.''D. Appleton & Co.: New York, p. 164. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. It is use ...
'') from the dried florets of safflower (''
Carthamus tinctorius Safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius'') is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant in the family Asteraceae. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and was used by the early Spanish colonies along ...
''). Darker shades are achieved by repeating the dyeing process several times, having the fabric dry, and redyed. Due to the expensive nature of the dye, safflower dye was sometimes diluted with other dyestuffs, such as turmeric and
sappan ''Biancaea sappan'' is a species of flowering tree in the legume family, Fabaceae, that is native to tropical Asia. Common names in English include sappanwood and Indian redwood. Sappanwood is related to brazilwood (''Paubrasilia echinata''), and ...
.


Biodegradable oil

In Australia in 2005,
CSIRO The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian Government The Australian Government, also known as the Commonwealth Government, is the national government of Australia, a federal parliamentar ...
and Grains Research and Development Corporation launched the Crop Biofactories initiative to produce 93% oleic oil for use as a
biodegradable Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It is generally assumed to be a natural process, which differentiates it from composting. Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradati ...
oil for
lubricant A lubricant (sometimes shortened to lube) is a substance that helps to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact, which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also have the function of transmitting forces, t ...
s,
hydraulic fluid A hydraulic fluid or hydraulic liquid is the medium by which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids are excavators and backhoe ...
s, and transformer oils, and as a
feedstock A raw material, also known as a feedstock, unprocessed material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished goods, energy, or intermediate materials that are feedstock for future finished products. As feedst ...
for
biopolymer Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, cl ...
s and
surfactant Surfactants are chemical compounds that decrease the surface tension between two liquids, between a gas and a liquid, or interfacial tension between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming ...
s.


See also

* Conjugated linoleic acid *
Suetsumuhana is the archaic Japanese word for the safflower. It is known now as . It is also the name of a female character in Murasaki Shikibu's epic novel ''The Tale of Genji''. The sixth chapter of it is named after her. She is also known as the Safflower ...
* Tsheringma


References


External links

*
Safflower field crops manual, University of Wisconsin, 1992
* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q156625 Plant dyes Food colorings Cooking oils tinctorius Medicinal plants Vegetable oils Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine Plants used in Ayurveda Plants described in 1753 Oil seeds Abortifacients