Persea indica.jpg
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family,
Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur ma ...
. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in
subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...
regions for its large, edible fruit.


Overview

They are medium-size trees, tall at maturity. The
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
are simple, lanceolate to broad lanceolate, varying with species from long and broad, and arranged spirally or alternately on the stems. The flowers are in short panicles, with six small greenish-yellow perianth segments long, nine stamens and an ovary with a single embryo. The fruit is an oval or pear-shaped
berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspb ...
, with a fleshy outer covering surrounding the single seed; size is very variable among the species, from in e.g. ''P. borbonia'' and ''P. indica'', up to in some cultivars of ''P. americana''.


Distribution and ecology

The species of ''Persea'' have a disjunct distribution, with about 70 Neotropical species, ranging from Brazil and Chile in South America to Central America and Mexico, the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
, and the southeastern United States; a single species, ''P. indica'', endemic to
Madeira ) , anthem = ( en, "Anthem of the Autonomous Region of Madeira") , song_type = Regional anthem , image_map=EU-Portugal_with_Madeira_circled.svg , map_alt=Location of Madeira , map_caption=Location of Madeira , subdivision_type=Sovereign st ...
and the
Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocc ...
off northwest Africa; and 80 species inhabiting east and southeast Asia. None of the species are very tolerant of severe winter cold, with the hardiest, ''P. borbonia'', ''P. ichangensis'' and ''P. lingue'', surviving temperatures down to about ; they also require continuously moist soil, and do not tolerate drought. A number of these species are found in forests that face threats of destruction or deforestation; for example, ''P. meyeniana'' in Central Chile. The family
Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur ma ...
was part of the land flora of
Gondwana Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
, and many genera had migrated to South America via Antarctica over ocean landbridges by the time of the Paleocene. From South America they spread over most of the continent. When the North American and South American tectonic plates joined in the late
Neogene The Neogene ( ), informally Upper Tertiary or Late Tertiary, is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya. ...
, volcanic mountain building created island chains which later formed the Mesoamerican landbridge. Pliocene elevation created new habitats for speciation. While some genera died out in increasingly xerophytic mainland Africa, starting with the freezing of Antarctica about 20 million years ago and the formation of the Benguela current, others, which also reached South America and Mesoamerica, such as ''
Beilschmiedia ''Beilschmiedia'' is a genus of trees and shrubs in family Lauraceae. Most of its species grow in tropical climates, but a few of them are native to temperate regions, and they are widespread in tropical Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, N ...
'' and '' Nectandra'' are still surviving today in Africa in a number of species. The genus, however, died out in Africa, except for '' P. indica'', which is, today, a threatened species that survives in the fog-shrouded mountains of the
Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocc ...
and
Madeira ) , anthem = ( en, "Anthem of the Autonomous Region of Madeira") , song_type = Regional anthem , image_map=EU-Portugal_with_Madeira_circled.svg , map_alt=Location of Madeira , map_caption=Location of Madeira , subdivision_type=Sovereign st ...
. Fossil evidence indicates that the genus originated in West Africa during the Paleocene, and spread to Asia, to South America, and to Europe and thence to
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
. It is thought that the gradual drying of Africa, west Asia, and the Mediterranean from the
Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but the ...
to the Pleistocene, and the glaciation of Europe during the Pleistocene, caused the extinction of the genus across these regions, resulting in the present distribution. Since this habitat is constantly threatened by encroaching agriculture, the laurel forest animal or vegetal species have already become rare in many of its former habitats and are threatened by further habitat loss. In Mesoamerica, ''Persea'' proliferated into many new species, and the berries of some of them constitute a valuable food supply for
quetzal Quetzals () are strikingly colored birds in the trogon family. They are found in forests, especially in humid highlands, with the five species from the genus ''Pharomachrus'' being exclusively Neotropical, while a single species, the eared quet ...
s, trogoniform birds that live in the montane rainforests of Mesoamerica. In particular, the resplendent quetzal's favorite fruits are berries of wild relatives of the avocado. Their differing maturing times in the cloudforest determine the migratory movements of the quetzals to differing elevation levels in the forests. With a gape width of , the quetzal swallows the small berry (aguacatillo) whole, which he catches while flying through the lower canopy of the tree, and then regurgitates the seed within from the tree. Wheelright in 1983 observed that parent quetzals take far less time intervals to deliver fruits to the young brood than insects or lizards, reflecting the ease of procuring fruits, as opposed to capturing animal prey. Since the young are fed exclusively berries in the first 2 weeks after hatching, these berries must be of high nutritional value. Usually only the total percentage of water, sugar, nitrogen, crude fats and carbohydrates are reported by ornithologists. ''Persea'' species are also used as food plants by the larvae of some
Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
species including
giant leopard moth The giant leopard moth (''Hypercompe scribonia'') is a moth of the family Erebidae. They are distributed through North America from southern Ontario, and southern and eastern United States through New England, Mexico and south to Colombia. The ...
, ''
Coleophora octagonella The octagonal casemaker moth (''Coleophora octagonella'') is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in the United States, including Alabama, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee. The species is misplaced in the genus '' Coleo ...
'' (which feeds exclusively on ''P. carolinensis'') and '' Hypercompe indecisa''.


Classification

The genus ''Persea'' is treated in three subgenera. The Asian subgenus '' Machilus'' is treated in a separate genus ''Machilus'' by many authors, including in the ''Flora of China'', while graft-incompatibility between subgenus ''Persea'' and subgenus ''Eriodaphne'' suggests that these too may be better treated as distinct genera, in fact Kostermans (1993) founded the genus ''Mutisiopersea'' for these. Another closely related genus, ''
Beilschmiedia ''Beilschmiedia'' is a genus of trees and shrubs in family Lauraceae. Most of its species grow in tropical climates, but a few of them are native to temperate regions, and they are widespread in tropical Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, N ...
'', is also sometimes included in ''Persea''. In a phylogenetic analysis of the "''Persea'' group", which also includes ''
Alseodaphne ''Alseodaphne'' is a genus of plants in the family Lauraceae, endemic to China and Southeast Asia. The genus has 96 species of evergreen trees to shrubs. They have bisexual flowers, a fruit stalk that is red, green, or yellow, and black fruit.
'', '' Phoebe,
Nothaphoebe ''Nothaphoebe'' is a genus of plant in family Lauraceae. It contains 21 species, which range from mainland Southeast Asia through Indonesia and the Philippines to New Guinea.Dehaasia'' and ''
Apollonias ''Apollonias'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus includes from one to 10 species of evergreen trees and shrubs, depending on circumscription; recent studies have limited the genus to just one spe ...
, Persea'' was found to be mostly monophyletic, with '' Apollonias barbujana'' from the Canary Islands nested within the core ''Persea'' group. The species ''Persea'' ''nudigemma'' was found to be more closely related to ''Phoebe'', while ''
Persea sphaerocarpa ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. O ...
'' was found to be nested within a group of ''
Alseodaphne ''Alseodaphne'' is a genus of plants in the family Lauraceae, endemic to China and Southeast Asia. The genus has 96 species of evergreen trees to shrubs. They have bisexual flowers, a fruit stalk that is red, green, or yellow, and black fruit.
'' species. ;Subgenus ''Persea'' — Central America. Two species. *'' Persea americana'' Mill. – Avocado **''Persea americana'' var. ''drymifolia'' (Schltdl. & Cham.) S.F.Blake **''Persea americana'' var. ''floccosa'' (Mez) Scora **''Persea americana'' var. ''guatemalensis'' (L.O.Williams) Scora **''Persea americana'' var. ''nubigena'' (L.O.Williams) L.E.Kopp **''Persea americana'' var. ''steyermarkii'' (C.K.Allen) Scora *''
Persea schiedeana ''Persea schiedeana'', the coyo, is an endangered, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae), native to tropical forests of southern Mexico and Central America. Its edible fruit resembles that of the avocado (''Persea americana)'', a rela ...
'' Nees – Coyo ;Subgenus ''Eriodaphne'' (''Mutisiopersea'') —
The Americas The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America, North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World. ...
, Macaronesia. About 70 species, including: *''
Persea alpigena ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible frui ...
'' *'' Persea borbonia'' (L.) Spreng. – Redbay *'' Persea brevipetiolata'' van der Werff from Mexico *'' Persea caerulea'' (Ruiz & Pav.) Mez *''
Persea cinerascens ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. O ...
'' *''
Persea donnell-smithii ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. ...
'' Mez *'' Persea indica'' (L.) Spreng. – Viñátigo (possibly better treated in a fourth subgenus of its own) *''
Persea lingue ''Persea lingue'' is an evergreen tree or shrub in the laurel family ( Lauraceae), found in Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the genus ''Persea'', a group of evergreen trees including the avocado. ''P. lingue'' was historically used in leather ...
'' (Ruiz & Pav.) Nees – Lingue *'' Persea longipes'' (Schltdl.) Meisn. *''
Persea meyeniana ''Persea meyeniana'' is an evergreen tree or shrub in the laurel family (Lauraceae), native to central Chile. It belongs to the genus ''Persea'', a group of evergreen trees that includes the avocado. It is threatened by habitat loss. Overview Th ...
'' Nees *''
Persea palustris ''Persea palustris'', also known as swamp bay or swampbay, is a small tree or shrub found throughout the Southeastern United States and the Bahamas, with much of its range overlapping with that of its relative ''Persea borbonia''. It is generally ...
'' (Raf.) Sarg. – Swampbay *'' Persea skutchii'' ;Subgenus ''Machilus'' — Asia. About 80 species, including: *''
Persea edulis The avocado (''Persea americana'') is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated by Mesoamerican tribes more than 5,000 years ago. Then as now it was prized for it ...
'' *''
Persea ichangensis ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. ...
'' *''
Persea japonica ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. ...
'' (Siebold & Zucc.) Kosterm. *'' Persea kadooriei'' From Hong Kong. *'' Persea kobu'' *''
Persea macrantha ''Persea macrantha'', the large-flowered bay tree, is an evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae), native to southwestern India and Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ...
'' *''
Persea nanmu ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. O ...
'' Oliv. *''
Persea thunbergii ''Machilus thunbergii'' (syn. ''Persea thunbergii''), the Japanese bay tree, red machilus, or tabunoki, is a widespread species of flowering plant in the family Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true l ...
'' (Siebold & Zucc.) Kosterm. *''
Persea yunnanensis ''Persea'' is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit. O ...
''


Formerly placed here

*''
Cinnamodendron cinnamomifolium ''Cinnamodendron'' is a genus of plants in family Canellaceae described as a genus in 1840. ''Cinnamodendron'' is native to South America and the West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlan ...
'' (Kunth) Kosterm. (as ''P. cinnamomifolia'' Kunth or ''P. mexicana'' (Meisn.) Hemsl.) *'' Laurus azorica'' (Seub.) Franco (as ''P. azorica'' Seub.)


Phylogeny

Based on


Etymology

Philip Miller derived ''Persea'' from the Greek name . It was applied by Theophrastus and Hippocrates to an uncertain Egyptian tree, possibly '' Cordia myxa'' or a ''
Mimusops ''Mimusops'' is a genus of plants in the family Sapotaceae described as a genus by Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Sw ...
'' species.


References


Bibliography

*
André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans Dr. André Joseph Guillaume Henri 'Dok' Kostermans (Purworejo, 1 July 1906 – Jakarta, 10 July 1994) was an Indonesian botanist of Dutch ancestry. He was born in Purworejo, Java, Dutch East Indies, and educated at Utrecht University, taking his ...
. 1993. Mutisiopersea Kostermans, a new genus in Lauraceae. ''Rheedea'' 3: 132–135. *C. Michael Hogan. 2008
''Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg
*Lucille E. Kopp. 1966. "A taxonomic revision of the genus Persea in the Western Hemisphere (''Persea-Lauracese'')" ''Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden'' 14(1): pp. 1–117


External links


Avocado source
Extensive information on the Avocado and the genus generally, particularly the subgenera ''Persea'' and ''Eriodaphne''
Flora of North America: ''Persea''Flora of China: ''Machilus''
Full list of species in ''Machilus'' in China {{Taxonbar, from=Q132039 Lauraceae genera Taxa named by Philip Miller