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The macaques () constitute a genus (''Macaca'') of gregarious Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The 23 species of macaques inhabit
ranges In the Hebrew Bible and in the Old Testament, the word ranges has two very different meanings. Leviticus In Leviticus 11:35, ranges probably means a cooking furnace for two or more pots, as the Hebrew word here is in the dual number; or perhaps ...
throughout Asia, North Africa, and (in one instance)
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. Macaques are principally frugivorous (preferring fruit), although their diet also includes seeds, leaves, flowers, and tree bark. Some species, such as the
crab-eating macaque The crab-eating macaque (''Macaca fascicularis''), also known as the long-tailed macaque and referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories, is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. A species of macaque, the crab-eating macaqu ...
, subsist on a diet of invertebrates and occasionally small vertebrates. On average, southern pig-tailed macaques in Malaysia eat about 70 large rats each per year. All macaque social groups are
matriarchal Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the primary power positions in roles of authority. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege and control of property. While those definitions apply in general E ...
, arranged around dominant females. Macaques are found in a variety of habitats throughout the Asian continent and are highly adaptable. Certain species have learned to live with humans and have become invasive in some human-settled
environments Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, all living and non-living things occurring naturally * Biophysical environment, the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism or ...
, such as the island of Mauritius and Silver Springs State Park in Florida. Macaques can be a threat to wildlife conservation as well as to human well-being via carrying transmittable and fatal diseases. Currently,
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
of macaques are handled with several control methods.


Description

Aside from humans (genus '' Homo''), the macaques are the most widespread primate genus, ranging from Japan to the Indian subcontinent, and in the case of the
Barbary macaque The Barbary macaque (''Macaca sylvanus''), also known as Barbary ape, is a macaque species native to the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, Libya, Tunisia and Morocco, along with a small introduced population in Gibraltar. It is the type species of the ...
(''Macaca sylvanus''), to North Africa and Southern Europe. Twenty-three macaque species are currently recognized. Macaques are robust primates whose arms and legs are about the same in length. The fur of these animals is typically varying shades of brown or black and their muzzles are rounded in profile with nostrils on the upper surface. The tail varies among each species, which can be long, moderate, short or totally absent. '' ''Although several species lack tails, and their common names refer to them as apes, these are true monkeys, with no greater relationship to the true apes than any other Old World monkeys. Instead, this comes from an earlier definition of 'ape' that included primates generally. In some species, skin folds join the second through fifth toes, almost reaching the first metatarsal joint. The monkey's size differs depending on sex and species. Males from all species can range from 41 to 70 cm (16 to 28 inches) in head and body length, and in weight from 5.5 to 18 kg (12.13 to 39.7 lb). Females can range from a weight of 2.4 to 13 kg (5.3 to 28.7 lb). These primates live in troops that vary in size, where males dominate, however the rank order of dominance frequently shifts. Female ranking lasts longer and depends upon their genealogical position. Macaques are able to swim and spend most of their time on the ground, along with some time in trees. They have large pouches in their cheeks where they carry extra food. They are considered highly intelligent and are often used in the medical field for experimentation. Adults also are notorious for tending to be bad tempered.


Distribution and habitat

Macaques are highly adaptable to different habitats and climates and can tolerate a wide fluctuation of temperatures and live in varying landscape settings. They easily adapt to human- built environments and can survive well in urban settings if they are able to steal food. They can also survive in completely natural settings absent of humans. The ecological and geographic ranges of the macaque are the widest of any non-human primate. Their habitats include the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, India, arid mountains of Pakistan and Afghanistan, and temperate mountains in Algeria, Japan,
northern China Northern China () and Southern China () are two approximate regions within China. The exact boundary between these two regions is not precisely defined and only serve to depict where there appears to be regional differences between the climate ...
, Morocco, and Nepal. Some species also inhabit villages and towns in cities in Asia.


Ecology and behavior


Diet

Macaques are mainly vegetarian, although some species have been observed feeding on insects. In natural habitats, they have been observed to consume certain parts of over one hundred species of plants including the buds, fruit, young leaves, bark, roots, and flowers. When macaques live amongst people, they raid agricultural crops such as wheat, rice, or
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...
; and garden crops like tomatoes, bananas, melons, mangos, or
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus ''Carica'' of the family Caricaceae. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within modern-day southern Mexico and ...
s. In human settings, they also rely heavily on direct handouts from people. This includes peanuts, rice,
legume A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock f ...
s, or even prepared food.


Group structure

Macaques live in established social groups that can range from a few individuals to several hundred, as they are social animals. A typical social group possess between 20 and 50 individuals of all ages and of both sexes. The typical composition consists of 15% adult males, 35% adult females, 20% infants, and 30% juveniles, though there exists variation in structure and size of groups across populations. Macaques have a very intricate social structure and hierarchy. If a macaque of a lower level in the social chain has eaten berries and none are left for a higher-ranking macaque, then the one higher in status can, within this social organization, remove the berries from the other monkey's mouth.


Reproduction and mortality

The reproductive potential of each species differs. Populations of the rhesus macaque can grow at rates of 10% to 15% per year if the environmental conditions are favorable. However, some forest-dwelling species are endangered with much lower reproductive rates. After one year of age, macaques move from being dependent on their mother during infancy, to the juvenile stage, where they begin to associate more with other juveniles through rough tumble and playing activities. They sexually mature between three and five years of age. Females will usually stay with the social group in which they were born; however, young adult males tend to disperse and attempt to enter other social groups. Not all males succeed in joining other groups and may become solitary, attempting to join other social groups for many years. Macaques have a typical lifespan of 20 to 30 years.


As invasive species

Certain species under the genus ''Macaca'' have become
invasive Invasive may refer to: *Invasive (medical) procedure *Invasive species *Invasive observation, especially in reference to surveillance *Invasively progressive spread of disease from one organ in the body to another, especially in reference to cancer ...
in certain parts of the world, while others that survive in forest habitats remain threatened. The long-tailed macaque (''M. fascicularis'') is listed as a threat and invasive alien species in Mauritius, along with the rhesus macaques (''M. mulatta'') in Florida. The long-tailed macaque causes severe damage to parts of its range where it has been introduced because the populations grow unchecked due to a lack of predators. On the island Mauritius, they have created serious conservation concerns for other endemic species. They consume seeds of native plants and aid in the spread of exotic weeds throughout the forests. This changes the composition of the habitats and allows them to be rapidly overrun by invasive plants. Long-tailed macaques are also responsible for the near extinction of several bird species on Mauritius by destroying the nests of the birds as they move through their native ranges and eat the eggs of critically endangered species, such as the
pink pigeon The pink pigeon (''Nesoenas mayeri'') is a species of pigeon in the family Columbidae endemic to Mauritius. The pink pigeon nearly became extinct in the 1970s and the 1990s and is still very rare. It is the only Mascarene pigeon that has not beco ...
and Mauritian green parrot. They can be serious agricultural pests because they raid crops and gardens and humans often shoot the monkeys which can eliminate entire local populations. In Florida, a group of rhesus macaques inhabit Silver Springs State Park. Humans often feed them, which may alter their movement and keep them close to the river on weekends where high human traffic is present. The monkeys can become aggressive toward humans, and also carry potentially fatal human diseases, including the
herpes B virus B-virus (''Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1''; McHV-1; formerly ''Macacine herpesvirus 1'', ''Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1'', CHV-1), ''Herpesvirus simiae'', or ''Herpes virus B'' is the ''Simplexvirus'' infecting macaque monkeys. B virus is very sim ...
.


Relations with humans

Several species of macaque are used extensively in animal testing, particularly in the neuroscience of visual perception and the visual system. Nearly all (73–100%) pet and captive rhesus macaques are carriers of the
herpes B virus B-virus (''Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1''; McHV-1; formerly ''Macacine herpesvirus 1'', ''Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1'', CHV-1), ''Herpesvirus simiae'', or ''Herpes virus B'' is the ''Simplexvirus'' infecting macaque monkeys. B virus is very sim ...
. This virus is harmless to macaques, but infections of humans, while rare, are potentially fatal, a risk that makes macaques unsuitable as pets. Urban performing macaques also carried simian foamy virus, suggesting they could be involved in the species-to-species jump of similar retroviruses to humans.


Population control

Management techniques have historically been controversial, and public disapproval can hinder control efforts. Previously, efforts to remove macaque individuals were met with public resistance. One management strategy that is currently being explored is that of sterilization. Natural resource managers are being educated by scientific studies in the proposed strategy. Effectiveness of this strategy is estimated to succeed in keeping populations in check. For example, if 80% of females are sterilized every five years, or 50% every two years, it could effectively reduce the population. Other control strategies include planting specific trees to provide protection to native birds from macaque predation, live trapping, and the vaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females.


Cloning

In January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal '' Cell'' the first creation of two
crab-eating macaque The crab-eating macaque (''Macaca fascicularis''), also known as the long-tailed macaque and referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories, is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. A species of macaque, the crab-eating macaqu ...
clones, named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, using somatic cell nuclear transfer – the same method that produced Dolly the sheep.


Species

As of 2005, the authors of '' Mammal Species of the World'' recognized the following species and species groups, aside from the
white-cheeked macaque The white-cheeked macaque (''Macaca leucogenys'') is a species of macaque found only in Mêdog County in southeastern Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. The white-cheeked macaque lives in forest habitats, from tropical forests ...
, which was described in 2015. Later studies disputed some of these species groupings. For example, Li et al., based on DNA testing, do not recognize the ''M. fascularis'' group. Rather, they place the crab-eating macaque within the ''M. mulatta'' group and the stump-tailed macaque within the ''M. sinica'' group.
Prehistoric Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...
( fossil) species: * '' M. anderssoni'' Schlosser, 1924 * '' M. jiangchuanensis'' Pan et al., 1992 * '' M. libyca'' Stromer, 1920 * '' M. majori'' Schaub & Azzaroli in Comaschi Caria, 1969 (sometimes included in ''M. sylvanus'') * '' M. florentina'' Cocchi, 1872


In Popular Culture

In the television show '' Leave it to Beaver'' (S3:E29), the plot features a pet Macaque named Stanley in a prominent role.


Gallery

File:Macaca arctoides.png,
Stump-tailed macaque The stump-tailed macaque (''Macaca arctoides''), also called the bear macaque, is a species of macaque native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. In India, it occurs south of the Brahmaputra River, in the northeastern part of the country. Its range ...
s (''M. arctoides'') File:Jigokudani hotspring in Nagano Japan 001.jpg, Japanese macaques (''M. fuscata'') bathing in a hot spring in Nagano File:Macaca nemestrina.jpg, A male
northern pig-tailed macaque The northern pig-tailed macaque (''Macaca leonina'') is a vulnerable species of macaque in the subfamily Cercopithecidae. It is found in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Traditionally, ''M. leonina'' w ...
(''M. leonina'') File:Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra).jpg, A
crested black macaque The Celebes crested macaque (''Macaca nigra''), also known as the crested black macaque, Sulawesi crested macaque, or the black ape, is an Old World monkey that lives in the Tangkoko reserve in the northeastern tip of the Indonesian island of S ...
(''M. nigra'') File:Macaca_fuscata.jpg, A Japanese macaque (''M. fuscata'') File:Macaques_in_Sagano.jpg, Japanese macaques (''M. fuscata'') in Sagano File:Macaca sinica aurifrons - Wetzone subspecies.jpg, A toque macaque (''M. sinica'') in
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
File:Happy Long Tailed Macaques At Pantai Kelanang Beach, Malaysia 02.jpg, Long-tailed macaques in Malaysia File:Macaque showing the middle finger.jpg, A macaque in Indonesia showing the middle finger


See also

* Baboon *
Herpes B virus B-virus (''Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1''; McHV-1; formerly ''Macacine herpesvirus 1'', ''Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1'', CHV-1), ''Herpesvirus simiae'', or ''Herpes virus B'' is the ''Simplexvirus'' infecting macaque monkeys. B virus is very sim ...
*
Kayabukiya Tavern The was a traditional-style Japanese "sake-house" restaurant (izakaya) that was located in the city of Utsunomiya, north of Tokyo, Japan. The tavern's owner, Kaoru Otsuka, owns two pet macaque monkeys who were employed to work at the location. ...
*
Macaque brain development timeline ;Species: Macaca mulatta ;Family: Cercopithecidae ; Order: Primates ;Gestation: 165 days Dates in days {, class="wikitable" , - ! Day ! Event ! Reference , - , 30 , retinal ganglion cell generation - start of neurogenesis , Robinson and Dreh ...


References


External links


Macaque Monkey Brain Atlas

Primate Info Net ''Macaca'' Factsheets
{{Authority control .01 Primates of Africa Primates of Asia Tool-using mammals