''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean

side dish A side dish, sometimes referred to as a side order, side item, or simply a side, is a food item that accompanies the entrée or main course at a meal.fermented Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food p ...

vegetables, such as

napa cabbage Napa cabbage (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''pekinensis'' or ''Brassica rapa'' Pekinensis Group) is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has als ...

and

Korean radish ''Mu'' or Korean radish is a variety of white radish with a firm crunchy texture. Although ''mu'' () is also a generic term for radishes in Korean, the word is usually used in its narrow sense, referring to the white radish, or more specificall ...

. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including ''

gochugaru Korean chili peppers or Korean hot peppers, also known as Korean red, Korean dark green, or Korean long green peppers according to color (ripening stages), are medium-sized chili peppers of the species ''Capsicum annuum''. The chili pepper is long ...

'' (Korean chili powder),

spring onion Scallions (also known as spring onions or green onions) are vegetables derived from various species in the genus ''Allium''. Scallions generally have a milder taste than most onions and their close relatives include garlic, shallot, leek, chi ...

s, garlic, ginger, and ''

jeotgal ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid piec ...

'' (salted seafood), etc. Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. As a staple food in Korean cuisine, it is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal. There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called kimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called ''

onggi ''Onggi'' () is Korean earthenware extensively used as tableware and storage containers in Korea. It includes both unglazed earthenware, fired near 600 to 700°C, and pottery with a dark brown glaze fired at over 1100 °C.The origin of ong ...

'', in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called

jangdokdae In Korean culture, Jangdokdae (Hangul: 장독대) or Jangttokttae is an outside space, most frequently a terrace, used to store or ferment food. Foods such as Kimchi, soybeans, grains, and bean and red pepper paste, are placed in ''Jangdok'' (o ...

. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.

Etymology

''Ji''

The term ''ji'' (), which has its origins in archaic Korean ''dihi'' (), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times. The sound change can be roughly described as: * ''dihi'' () > ''di'' () > ''ji'' () The

Middle Korean Middle Korean is the period in the history of the Korean language succeeding Old Korean and yielding in 1600 to the Modern period. The boundary between the Old and Middle periods is traditionally identified with the establishment of Goryeo in 9 ...

form ''dihi'' is found in several books from '' Joseon'' (1392–1897). (from the original ''Jiālǐ'' by

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...

) In

Modern Korean Korean (South Korean: , ''hangugeo''; North Korean: , ''chosŏnmal'') is the native language for about 80 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the official and national language of both North Korea and South Korea (geographically Ko ...

, the word remains as the suffix ''-ji'' in the standard language (as in ''

jjanji ''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), sp ...

'', ''seokbak-ji''), and as the suffix ''-ji'' as well as the noun ''ji'' in Gyeongsang and

Jeolla dialect The Jeolla dialect of the Korean language, also known as Southwestern Korean, is spoken in the Jeolla ( Honam) region of South Korea, including the metropolitan city of Gwangju. This area was known as Jeolla Province during the Joseon era. How ...

s. The unpalatalized form ''di'' is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.

''Kimchi''

''Kimchi'' () is the accepted word in both

North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. Etymology The word ''north ...

and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include ''timchɑi'' (), a

transcription of the Sino-Korean word (literally "submerged vegetable"). ''Timchɑi'' appears in ''Sohak Eonhae'', the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, ''Xiaoxue''. Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as: * ''timchɑi'' (; ) > ''dimchɑi'' () > ''jimchɑi'' () > ''jimchui'' () > ''gimchi'' () The aspirated first consonant of ''timchae'' became unaspirated in ''dimchɑe'', then underwent palatalization in ''jimchɑe''. The word then became ''jimchui'' with the loss of the vowel ''ɑ'' () in Korean language, then ''Kimchi'', with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the

hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...

characters are pronounced ''chimchae'' (), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word ''Kimchi'' is not considered as a Sino-Korean word. Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: ''jimchae'' (Jeolla,

Hamgyŏng dialect The Hamgyŏng dialect, or Northeastern Korean, is a dialect of the Korean language used in most of North and South Hamgyŏng and Ryanggang Provinces of northeastern North Korea, all of which were originally united as Hamgyŏng Province. Since t ...

s), ''jimchi'' (

Chungcheong Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...

, Gangwon,

Gyeonggi Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...

, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects), and ''dimchi'' (P'yŏngan dialect). The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from ''kimch'i'', the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word ''Kimchi'' ().

History

Early history

Samguk Sagi ''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...

'', a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, also mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time. During the

Silla Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms ...

dynasty (57 BC – AD 935), kimchi became prevalent as

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...

caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle. The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called ''

''. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family. A poem on

written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was a commonplace in

Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...

(918–1392). Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish. Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or

chili pepper Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for ...

. Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a

New World The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...

crop. Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders. The first mention of chili pepper is found in ''

Jibong yuseol ''Jibong yuseol'' ("Topical Discourses of Jibong") is a Korean encyclopedia written by Yi Su-gwang. It was published in 1614 during the reign of King Gwanghaegun. The author was a silhak scholar and a military officer of the mid-Joseon period o ...

'', an encyclopedia published in 1614. ''

Sallim gyeongje ''Sallim gyeongje'', roughly translated as "Farm Management", However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi was widespread. The recipes from early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi. A 1766 book, ''

Jeungbo sallim gyeongje ''Jeungbo sallim gyeongje'' is a Korean book on agriculture compiled by Yu Jung-rim (柳重臨) as revised and enlarged from the ''Sallim gyeongje'' written by Hong Man-seon (洪萬選 1643∼1715). Yu Jung-rim was a physician during the reign of ...

'', reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including ''chonggak-kimchi'' (kimchi made with

chonggak radish ''Chonggakmu'' or Chonggak radish, also called ponytail radish, is a variety of white radish. It is a small radish with many fine roots; of which the entire plant, including the leaves and stems, is used in Korean cuisine. Names and etymology ...

), ''oi-sobagi'' (with cucumber), ''seokbak-ji'' (with ''

jogi-jeot ''Jogi-jeot'' () or salted yellow croaker is a variety of ''jeotgal'' (salted seafood), made with yellow croakers. In Korean cuisine, ''jogi-jeot'' is widely used as ''banchan'' (side dish), as a condiment, or as an ingredient for kimchi. Histo ...

''), and ''

dongchimi ''Dongchimi'' is a variety of kimchi consisting of Korean radish, napa cabbage, scallions, pickled green chilli, ginger, Korean pear and watery brine in Korean cuisine. As the name ''dong'' (hangul: 동; hanja: 冬; literally "winter") and '' ...

''. However,

was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century, and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in ''

Siuijeonseo ''Siuijeonseo'' () is a Korean cookbook compiled in the late 19th century. The author is unknown but is assumed to be a lady of the yangban (nobility during the Joseon dynasty) class in Sangju, North Gyeongsang Province. In 1919, as Sim Hwanjin w ...

'', a cookbook published around that time.

Modern history

During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field. In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for

Yi So-yeon Yi So-yeon (born June 2, 1978) is a South Korean astronaut and biotechnologist who became the first Korean to fly in space. Upon return from her mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS), Yi continued as a KARI researcher attendin ...

, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal Kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria. South Korea developed programs for adult

Korean adoptees The international adoption of South Korean children was at first started as a result of a large number of orphaned mixed children from the Korean War after 1953, but later included orphaned Korean children. Religious organizations in the United S ...

to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.

1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan

In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product ('' kimuchi'', ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and more similar to

asazuke (literally: ''shallow pickle'') is a Japanese pickling method characterized by its short preparation time. The name implies a food pickled in the morning and ready by the evening. The word ''asazuke'' can also refer to the items pickled in this ...

. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.Sims, Calvin (February 2000
"Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue with a Rendition of Their National Dish Made in Japan"
''

The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...

''. In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives. Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.

2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis

Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis. Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which ''The New York Times'' compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free

ketchup Ketchup or catsup is a table condiment with a sweet and tangy flavor. The unmodified term ("ketchup") now typically refers to tomato ketchup, although early recipes used egg whites, mushrooms, oysters, grapes, mussels, or walnuts, among o ...

. In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity UNESCO established its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage with the aim of ensuring better protection of important intangible cultural heritages worldwide and the awareness of their significance.Compare: This list is published by the Intergover ...

by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "

Arirang "Arirang" (; ) is a Korean folk song. There are about 3,600 variations of 60 different versions of the song, all of which include a refrain similar to "''Arirang, arirang, arariyo'' ()". It is estimated the song is more than 600 years old. ...

" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.

= Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)

= Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.

= Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)

= North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015 as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and red than South Korean kimchi. Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.

Kimchi Day

In the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

, states

California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...

Maryland Maryland ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It shares borders with Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean to ...

and New York, and capital city

Washington D.C. ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, Na ...

have issued proclamations declaring November 22 as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.

Conflicts with China

= 2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports

= Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai. However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations. Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.

= Boycott in China

= A 2017 article in ''

'' said that anti-Korean sentiment in China has risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of

THAAD Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD), formerly Theater High Altitude Area Defense, is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short-, medium-, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their termina ...

in South Korea, government-run Chinese news media has encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and Chinese nationalists have vowed to not eat kimchi. The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to the Koreans in the

Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture Yanbian (; Chosŏn'gŭl: , ''Yeonbyeon''), officially known as the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the east of Jilin Province, China. Yanbian is bordered to the north by Heilongjiang Province, on the west ...

. Chinese nationalists have also criticized Korean kimchi, by calling them "merely pickles", whereas Chinese kimchi pao cai's literal meaning is "pickled vegetable".

= 2020 kimchi origin dispute with China

= In November 2020, the

International Organization for Standardization The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ) is an international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Membership requirements are given in Art ...

(ISO) posted new regulations for the making of pao cai. The same month,

BBC News BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs in the UK and around the world. The department is the world's largest broad ...

reported that Chinese news organization ''

Global Times The ''Global Times'' () is a daily tabloid newspaper under the auspices of the Chinese Communist Party's flagship newspaper, the '' People's Daily'', commenting on international issues from a Chinese ultra-nationalistic perspective. The pub ...

'' claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China". This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people, as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim Kimchi as their own. After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained the controversy as the "misunderstanding in translation", and stated that "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while ''paocai'', or Sichuan ''paocai'', refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China." Global Times also reported that

Baidu Baike Baidu Baike (; , also known as Baidu Wiki) is a semi-regulated Chinese-language collaborative online encyclopedia owned by the Chinese technology company Baidu. The beta version was launched on April 20, 2006, and the official version was lau ...

, the Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request. The South Korean

Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism South Korea's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (MCST) is a central government agency responsible for the areas of tourism, culture, art, religion, and sports. It has two vice ministers, three assistant ministers, one commission, and ...

subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term "xin qi" as the new proper Chinese translation of Kimchi while "pao cai" was an acceptable translation prior to the controversy.

Ingredients

Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.

Vegetables

For many families, the pungent and often spicy meal is a source of pride and recalls the taste of a good home. Cabbages (

bomdong Bomdong () also known as spring cabbage is a hardy cabbage with tough, sweet leaves. The leaves of bomdong, unlike those of regular napa cabbages, fall to the sides, giving the plant a flat shape. This cabbage is primarily used in the making of ...

headed cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.&nbs ...

s) and radishes (

es, ponytail radishes,

gegeol radish ''Gegeolmu'', or gegeol radish, is a variety of white radish. It is a round, pungent radish with a thick rind and firm flesh that does not get soft even after a few years of storage as kimchi. Being a speciality crop of Icheon and Yeoju in Kore ...

es,

yeolmu radish ''Yeolmu'' () or young summer radish is a type of leafy radish cultivated in Korea. Its taproots and greens are harvested when they are still soft and tender. Yeolmukimchi.jpg, ''Yeolmu-kimchi'' (Young summer radish kimchi) See also * Korea ...

es) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots,

celery Celery (''Apium graveolens'') is a marshland plant in the family Apiaceae that has been cultivated as a vegetable since antiquity. Celery has a long fibrous stalk tapering into leaves. Depending on location and cultivar, either its stalks, ...

chamnamul ''Spuriopimpinella brachycarpa'' (Nakai) Kitag. (known formerly as ''Pimpinella brachycarpa)'' (common names chamnamul and short-fruit pimpinella) is a species in the genus '' Spuriopimpinella'' (family Apiaceae). It is a scented plant with saw-t ...

cilantro Coriander (;

, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant,

garlic chives ''Allium tuberosum'' (garlic chives, Oriental garlic, Asian chives, Chinese chives, Chinese leek) is a species of plant native to the Chinese province of Shanxi, and cultivated and naturalized elsewhere in Asia and around the world. Description ...

, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots,

Korean parsley ''Oenanthe javanica'', commonly Java waterdropwort, water celery, water dropwort, Chinese celery, Indian pennywort and Japanese (flat leaf) parsley, is a plant of the genus '' Oenanthe'' originating from East Asia. It has a widespread native dist ...

, Korean wild chive,

lotus root ''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often re ...

mustard greens ''Brassica juncea'', commonly brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, Oriental mustard and vegetable mustard, is a species of mustard plant. Cultivar ''Brassica juncea'' cultivars can be divided into four major subgroups ...

, onions, perilla leaves,

bamboo shoot Bamboo shoots or bamboo sprouts are the edible shoots (new bamboo culms that come out of the ground) of many bamboo species including ''Bambusa vulgaris'' and ''Phyllostachys edulis''. They are used as vegetables in numerous Asian dishes and ...

momordica charantia ''Momordica charantia'' (commonly called bitter melon; Goya; bitter apple; bitter gourd; bitter squash; balsam-pear; with many more names listed below) is a tropical and subtropical vine of the family Cucurbitaceae, widely grown in Asia, Afr ...

, pumpkins, radish greens,

rapeseed Rapeseed (''Brassica napus ''subsp.'' napus''), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains a ...

leaves,

scallion Scallions (also known as spring onions or green onions) are vegetables derived from various species in the genus '' Allium''. Scallions generally have a milder taste than most onions and their close relatives include garlic, shallot, leek, c ...

s, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and

tomato The tomato is the edible berry of the plant ''Solanum lycopersicum'', commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Mexican Nahuatl word gave rise to the Spanish word ...

es.

Seasonings

Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to

kitchen salt A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. A modern middle-class residential kitchen is typically equipped with a stove, a sink with hot and cold running water, a ...

) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods. Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi. Commonly used seasonings include ''

'' (chili powder),

s, garlic, ginger, and ''

'' (salted seafood) ''Jeotgal'' can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the

Korean peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

. If used, milder ''

saeu-jeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with '' myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The nam ...

'' (salted shrimp) or ''

'' (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of ''jeotgal'' is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, generous amount of stronger ''

myeolchi-jeot ''Myeolchi-jeot'' () or salted anchovies is a variety of ''jeotgal'' (salted seafood), made by salting and fermenting anchovies. * Along with ''saeu-jeot'' (salted shrimps), it is one of the most commonly consumed ''jeotgal'' in Korean cuisine. I ...

'' (salted anchovies) and '' galchi-jeot'' (salted hairtail) is commonly used. Raw seafood or '' daegu-agami-jeot'' (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas. Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.

Production

The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism. The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours. The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added. The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature. The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%. Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas. The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.

Microorganisms in kimchi

The

microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...

s present in kimchi include ''

Bacillus mycoides ''Bacillus mycoides'' is a bacterium of the genus ''Bacillus''. Like other ''Bacillus'' species, ''B. mycoides'' is Gram positive, rod-shaped, and forms spores. ''B. mycoides'' is distinguished from other ''Bacillus'' species by its unusual gro ...

'', '' B. pseudomycoides'', ''

B. subtilis ''Bacillus subtilis'', known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, humans and marine sponges. As a member of the genus ''Bacillu ...

'', ''

Lactobacillus brevis ''Levilactobacillus brevis'' is a gram-positive, rod shaped species of lactic acid bacteria which is heterofermentative, creating CO2, lactic acid and acetic acid or ethanol during fermentation. ''L. brevis'' is the type species of the genus ''Le ...

'', '' Lb. curvatus'', '' Lb. kimchii'', '' Lb. parabrevis'', '' Lb. pentosus'', '' Lb. plantarum'', '' Lb. sakei'', '' Lb. spicheri'', '' Lactococcus carnosum'', '' Lc. gelidum'', '' Lc. lactis'', '' Leuconostoc carnosum'', '' Ln. citreum'', '' Ln. gasicomitatum'', '' Ln. gelidum'', '' Ln. holzapfelii'', '' Ln. inhae'', '' Ln. kimchii'', '' Ln. lactis'', '' Ln. mesenteroides'', ''

Serratia marcescens ''Serratia marcescens'' () is a species of rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacteria in the family Yersiniaceae. It is a facultative anaerobe and an opportunistic pathogen in humans. It was discovered in 1819 by Bartolomeo Bizio in Padua, Italy.Serra ...

'', '' Weissella cibaria'', '' W. confusa'', '' W. kandleri'', '' W. kimchii''. '' W. koreensis'', and '' W. soli''. Archaea and

yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constit ...

s, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi, with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors. In early fermentation stages, the ''

Leuconostoc ''Leuconostoc'' is a genus of gram-positive bacteria, placed within the family of Lactobacillaceae. They are generally ovoid cocci often forming chains. ''Leuconostoc'' spp. are intrinsically resistant to vancomycin and are catalase-negative (w ...

'' variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the ''

'' variety also grows better at low salt concentrations. Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the ''

Lactobacillus ''Lactobacillus'' is a genus of Gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobes or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. Until 2020, the genus ''Lactobacillus'' comprised over 260 phylogenetically, ecologically, and metabolically div ...

'' and '' Weissella'' variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. ''Lactobacillus'' also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration. These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi. The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the

lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillales are an order of gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally nonsporulating, nonrespiring, either rod-shaped ( bacilli) or spherical ( cocci) bacteria that share common metabolic and physiological characteristics. These bact ...

(LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism. These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10℃, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% - 4% NaCl. A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level. Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs. The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome. In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of '' Leu. mesenteroides'', '' Leu. citreum'', and '' Lb. plantarum'' are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.

By-products of microorganisms

The

(LAB) produce

lactic acid Lactic acid is an organic acid. It has a molecular formula . It is white in the solid state and it is miscible with water. When in the dissolved state, it forms a colorless solution. Production includes both artificial synthesis as well as nat ...

hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula . In its pure form, it is a very pale blue liquid that is slightly more viscous than water. It is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent, and antiseptic, usually as a dilute solution (3%� ...

, and

carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is trans ...

as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting. This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract. Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms. Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.

Odor

Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets. These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.

Varieties

Kimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables. It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish. Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally. New variations of kimchi continue to be created, and the taste can vary depending on the region and season. Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands. However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation. Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference."Kimchi." Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia
There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi. The most common kimchi variations are: * ''

Baechu-kimchi ''Baechu-kimchi'' (), translated as cabbage kimchi or simply kimchi is a quintessential ''banchan'' (side dish) in Korean cuisine, made with salted, seasoned, and fermented napa cabbages. * Preparation ''Baechu-kimchi'' is made by fermenting s ...

'' () spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves * ''Baechu-geotjeori'' () unfermented napa cabbage kimchi * ''Bossam-kimchi'' () wrapped kimchi * ''

Baek-kimchi Baek-kimchi * () or white kimchi is a variety of kimchi made without the chili pepper powder commonly used for fermenting kimchi in Korean cuisine. ''Baek kimchi'' has a mild and clean flavor, which appeals to children and the elderly, to whom t ...

'' () white kimchi, made without chili pepper * ''

Dongchimi ''Dongchimi'' is a variety of kimchi consisting of Korean radish, napa cabbage, scallions, pickled green chilli, ginger, Korean pear and watery brine in Korean cuisine. As the name ''dong'' (hangul: 동; hanja: 冬; literally "winter") and '' ...

'' () a non-spicy watery kimchi * ''

Nabak-kimchi ''Nabak-kimchi'' * () is a watery kimchi, similar to ''dongchimi'', in Korean cuisine. It is made of Korean radish and napa cabbage (called ''baechu'', hangul 배추, in Korean) as main ingredients, thinly sliced into rectangular shapes, salte ...

'' () a mildly spicy watery kimchi * ''Chonggak-kimchi'' () cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi * ''

Kkakdugi ''Kkakdugi'' (깍두기) or diced radish kimchi is a variety of kimchi in Korean cuisine. Usually, Korean radish (called ''mu'', 무 in Korean) is used, but other vegetables or fruits can also be used. ''Kkakduk-kkakduk'' is an ideophone rela ...

'' () spicy cubed

strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp * ''Oi-sobagi'' () cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons * ''

Pa-kimchi Pa-kimchi (), also known as green onion kimchi or scallion kimchi, is one of types of Kimchi that Koreans usually eat for banchan (traditional side dishes) and is most popular in Jeolla-do. Pa Kimchi uses medium-thick green onions known as ''jjok ...

'' () spicy green onion kimchi * ''

Yeolmu-kimchi ''Yeolmu-kimchi'' * () or young summer radish kimchi is one of the many types of Kimchi, a popular banchan (Korean: 반찬, Korean side dish). Although yeolmu radish (young summer radish) has small and thin taproots that do not have much use, ...

'' () is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with

es, and does not necessarily have to be fermented. * '' Gat-kimchi'' (), made with

Indian mustard ''Brassica juncea'', commonly brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, Oriental mustard and vegetable mustard, is a species of mustard plant. Cultivar ''Brassica juncea'' cultivars can be divided into four major subgroup ...

* ''Yangbaechu-kimchi'' (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage) Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as

Jeolla-do Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla Province, North Jeolla, South Jeolla Province, Sou ...

and

Gyeongsang-do Gyeongsang ( ko, 경상도, ''Gyeongsang-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the Kingdom ...

, uses salt, chili peppers and '' myeolchijeot'' (, brined

anchovy An anchovy is a small, common forage fish of the family Engraulidae. Most species are found in marine waters, but several will enter brackish water, and some in South America are restricted to fresh water. More than 140 species are placed in 1 ...

allowed to ferment) or ''

saeujeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with ''myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The name c ...

'' (, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), ''myeolchiaekjeot'' (), ''kkanariaekjeot'' (), liquid anchovy

jeot ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid piec ...

, similar to

fish sauce Fish sauce is a liquid condiment made from fish or krill that have been coated in salt and fermented for up to two years. It is used as a staple seasoning in East Asian cuisine and Southeast Asian cuisine, particularly Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao ...

used in Southeast Asia, but thicker. ''

Saeujeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with ''myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The name c ...

'' () or ''myeolchijeot'' is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.

Color

White kimchi are neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white

radish The radish (''Raphanus raphanistrum'' subsp. ''sativus'') is an edible root vegetable of the family Brassicaceae that was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times. Radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world, being mostly eaten raw ...

kimchi (''

''). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in ''dongchimi'' brine (''dongchimi-guksu'').

Age

* ''

Geotjeori ''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including ''gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), sprin ...

'' () are fresh, unfermented kimchi. * ''Mugeun-ji'' (), also known as ''mugeun-kimchi'' (), aged kimchi

Region

The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it. * '' Pyongan-do'' (North Korea, outside of Pyongyang): Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages. * ''

Hamgyeong-do Hamgyong Province () was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hamgyŏng was located in the northeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Hamhŭng. Names The province was first established as Yonggil ( ko, 영길, , '' ...

'' (Upper Northeast): Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi. * '' Hwanghae-do'' (Midwest): The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae-do is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae-do is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (''bundi''). Korean

* '' Gyeonggi-do'' (Lower Midwest of Hwanghae-do) * '' Chungcheong-do'' (between Gyeonggi-do and Jeolla-do): Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong-do has the most varieties of kimchi. * ''

Gangwon-do (South Korea) Gangwon Province is a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. It is bound on the east by the Sea of Japan, and borders Gyeonggi Province to its west, North Gyeongsang Province and North Chungcheong Province to its south, and ...

/ Kangwon-do (North Korea)'' (Mideast): In Gangwon-do, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish. * ''

'' (Lower Southwest): Salted

yellow corvina ''Larimichthys polyactis'', called the redlip croaker, small yellow croaker, little yellow croaker or yellow corvina, is a species of croaker native to the western Pacific, generally in temperate waters such as the East China Sea and the Yellow ...

and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi. * ''

'' (Lower Southeast): This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot () which produce a briny and savory flavor. * ''Foreign countries'': In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as

broccoli Broccoli (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''italica'') is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus ''Brassica'') whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is cla ...

Seasonal variations

Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences. Korean-Dongchimi-01

Spring

After a long period of consuming '' gimjang kimchi'' () during the winter, fresh

potherb Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad gre ...

s and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.

Summer

Yeolmu radish ''Yeolmu'' () or young summer radish is a type of leafy radish cultivated in Korea. Its taproots and greens are harvested when they are still soft and tender. Yeolmukimchi.jpg, ''Yeolmu-kimchi'' (Young summer radish kimchi) See also * Korea ...

es and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, ''

yeolmu-kimchi ''Yeolmu-kimchi'' * () or young summer radish kimchi is one of the many types of Kimchi, a popular banchan (Korean: 반찬, Korean side dish). Although yeolmu radish (young summer radish) has small and thin taproots that do not have much use, ...

'' () which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.

Autumn

Baechu Napa cabbage (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''pekinensis'' or ''Brassica rapa'' Pekinensis Group) is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has al ...

kimchi'' is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called ''sok'' (literally ''inside''), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole

Napa cabbage Napa cabbage (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''pekinensis'' or ''Brassica rapa'' Pekinensis Group) is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has als ...

. The ingredients of ''sok'' () can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, ''baechu kimchi'' used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of '' myeolchijeot'' or ''

'' had been used. ''Gogumasoon Kimchi'' is made from sweet potato stems.

Winter

Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi () were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern

kimchi refrigerator A kimchi refrigerator is a refrigerator designed specifically to meet the storage requirements of kimchi and facilitate different fermentation processes. The kimchi refrigerator aims to be colder, with more consistent temperature, more humidit ...

s offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations. "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted

baechu Napa cabbage (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''pekinensis'' or ''Brassica rapa'' Pekinensis Group) is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has al ...

filled with thin strips of

, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (), garlic, and ginger.

Korean preference

As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then

kkakdugi ''Kkakdugi'' (깍두기) or diced radish kimchi is a variety of kimchi in Korean cuisine. Usually, Korean radish (called ''mu'', 무 in Korean) is used, but other vegetables or fruits can also be used. ''Kkakduk-kkakduk'' is an ideophone rela ...

, then

and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.Hui et al. (2004). Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. New York:

Marcel Dekker Marcel Dekker was a journal and encyclopedia publishing company with editorial boards found in New York City. Dekker encyclopedias are now published by CRC Press, part of the Taylor and Francis publishing group. History Initially a textbook pu ...

. Pages 190 & 191. Retrieved 23 March 2017, fro
link.
/ref>

Dishes usually served with kimchi

As a traditional side dish, Kimchi is almost always served along with other side dishes in most Korean family households and restaurants. Kimchi can be eaten alone or with white or brown rice, but it is also included in recipes of other traditional dishes, including porridges, soups, and rice cakes. Kimchi is also the basis for many derivative dishes such as kimchi stew (), kimchi pancake (), kimchi soup (), and kimchi fried rice (). Army base stew () is a popular dish made with spam, sausage, and kimchi. It originated after the Korean war based on ingredients scrounged from the army.

Nutrition

Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber, while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B₁), riboflavin (B₂), calcium, and iron. A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually. Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish. Adult Koreans eat from to of kimchi a day.Tamang, J.P. (2015). Health Benefits of Fermented Foods and Beverages. CRC Press.

Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in England that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, Routledge, F1000 (publisher), F1000 Research or Dovepress. It is a division of Informa ...

. Pages 344, 350 & 351. Retrieved 21 March 2017, fro
link.
/ref>

Trade

South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017. South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person. It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.

Food regulations

The

Canadian Food Inspection Agency The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA; french: Agence canadienne d'inspection des aliments) is a regulatory agency that is dedicated to the safeguarding of food, plants, and animals (FPA) in Canada, thus enhancing the health and well-being of ...

has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5. Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested. This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes. The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.

Gallery

File:Korean cuisine-Gimjang-Preparation for making kimchi-01.jpg, Preparation for making kimchi File:Korean cuisine-Seongnyu kimchi-Pomegranate kimchi-01.jpg, ''Seokryu kimchi'' named after its pomegranate-like shape File:Koren cuisine-Jang kimchi-Pickled with soy sauce-01.jpg, ''Jang kimchi'', pickled with soy sauce File:Korean food-Packed kimchi-01.jpg, Displayed manufactured kimchi File:Oi-sobagi.jpg, ''Oi-sobagi'' (cucumber kimchi) File:Bok choy green kimchi.jpg, Homemade green kimchi, made with

bok choy Bok choy (American English, Canadian English, and Australian English), pak choi (British English) or pok choi (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''chinensis'') is a type of Chinese cabbage, used as food. ''Chinensis'' varieties do not form heads and have ...

with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste