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Khat or qat ( ''ch’at''; Oromo: ''Jimaa'', so, qaad, khaad, khat or chat, ar, القات ''al-qāt'') is a flowering plant native to eastern and southern Africa. Khat contains the alkaloid
cathinone Cathinone (also known as benzoylethanamine, or β-keto-amphetamine) is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub '' Catha edulis'' (khat) and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine, methcathinone and other amphetamines. It is probably the m ...
, a
stimulant Stimulants (also often referred to as psychostimulants or colloquially as uppers) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the central nervous system and the body, drugs that are pleasurable and inv ...
, which is said to cause excitement, loss of appetite, and
euphoria Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...
. Among communities from the areas where the plant is native, khat chewing has a history as a social custom dating back thousands of years analogous to the use of coca leaves in South America and betel nut in Asia. The World Health Organization (WHO) classified it in 1980 as a
drug of abuse Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods which are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, ...
that can produce psychological dependence, although the WHO does not consider khat addiction to be a serious problem. The legality of khat varies by region. In many countries, khat might not be a specifically controlled substance but may nevertheless be illegal under more general laws. It is a specifically controlled substance in some countries including Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By contrast, the production, sale, and consumption are legal in the nations where its use is traditional of those cultures, including Djibouti, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Somalia,
Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
and Yemen. In Israel, which hosts a population of Yemenite Jews, only the consumption of the plant's leaves in its natural state is permitted.


Nomenclature

The genus name ''Catha'' is a Latinization of the Arabic name ''قات'', which is regularly
romanized Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and ...
as ''qāt''. Other romanizations include ''kat'', ''quatt'', ''qaad'', ''qhat'', ''ghat'', and ''chat''. The khat plant is known by a variety of names, such as ''qat'' and ''gat'' in Yemen, ''qaat'' and ''jaad'' in Somalia, and ''chat'' in Ethiopia. It is also known as ''jimaa'' in the
Oromo language Oromo ( or ; Oromo: ''Afaan Oromoo''), in the linguistic literature of the early 20th century also called Galla (a name with a pejorative meaning and therefore rejected by the Oromo people), is an Afroasiatic language that belongs to the Cushiti ...
, ''mayirungi'' in
Luganda The Ganda language or Luganda (, , ) is a Bantu language spoken in the African Great Lakes region. It is one of the major languages in Uganda and is spoken by more than 10 million Baganda and other people principally in central Uganda including ...
, and as ''miraa'' in Kenya. In the African Great Lakes region, where ''Catha edulis'' is in some areas cultivated, it is known as ''miraa'', ''muhulo'' and ''muirungi''. It also goes by various descriptive names, such as ''Abyssinian tea'', ''Somalian tea'', ''miraa'', ''Arabian tea'', ''jimaa'', and ''kafta'' in its endemic regions of the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula. In South Africa, the plant is known as ''bushman's tea''. The plant is also known as ''chat tree'' and ''flower of paradise''.


Description

Khat is a slow-growing
shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
or tree that typically attains a height of . However, it can reach heights of up to in equatorial areas. The plant usually grows in arid environments, at a temperature range of . It has evergreen
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
, which are long and broad. It takes seven to eight years for the khat plant to reach its full height. Other than access to sun and water, khat requires little maintenance. Ground water is often pumped from deep wells by diesel engines to irrigate the crops, or brought in by water trucks. The plants are watered heavily starting around a month before they are harvested to make the leaves and stems soft and moist. A good khat plant can be harvested four times a year, providing a year-long source of income for the farmer. The shrub's flowers are produced on short axillary
cymes An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed on ...
that are in length. Each flower is small, with five white petals. The
samara Samara ( rus, Сама́ра, p=sɐˈmarə), known from 1935 to 1991 as Kuybyshev (; ), is the largest city and administrative centre of Samara Oblast. The city is located at the confluence of the Volga and the Samara (Volga), Samara rivers, with ...
fruit is an oblong, three-valved capsule, which contains one to three seeds.


Cultivation and uses

Khat has been grown for use as a stimulant for centuries in the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
and the
Arabian peninsula The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
. There, chewing khat predates the use of coffee and is used in a similar social context. Its fresh leaves and tops are chewed or, less frequently, dried and consumed as tea, to achieve a state of euphoria and stimulation. The leaves or the soft part of the stem can be chewed with either chewing gum or fried peanuts to make it easier to chew. In Uganda, it is grown in the central region, especially in Kasenge (
Wakiso Wakiso is a city in the Central Region of Uganda. It is the headquarters of Wakiso District. Location Wakiso is located on the Kampala–Hoima Highway, approximately north-west of Kampala, Uganda's capital and largest city. The coordinates ...
), Butambala District, Mabira Forest, and in some parts of the western region of the country. In Kenya, it is grown in
Meru County Meru County is one of the 47 counties of Kenya, located in the former Eastern Province. The county lies between 0° 6′ North and 0° 1′ South and between latitudes 37° West and 38° East. It borders Isiolo County to the North, Tharaka/Nit ...
. Although the practice of khat-chewing is still primarily restricted to its original area of cultivation in the Red Sea area, the khat plant has over the years found its way to southern Africa as well as tropical areas, where it grows on rocky outcrops and in woodlands. The shrub is today scattered in the
KwaZulu-Natal KwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province") is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is locate ...
,
Eastern Cape The Eastern Cape is one of the provinces of South Africa. Its capital is Bhisho, but its two largest cities are East London and Gqeberha. The second largest province in the country (at 168,966 km2) after Northern Cape, it was formed in ...
, Western Cape and
Mpumalanga Mpumalanga () is a province of South Africa. The name means "East", or literally "The Place Where the Sun Rises" in the Swazi, Xhosa, Ndebele and Zulu languages. Mpumalanga lies in eastern South Africa, bordering Eswatini and Mozambique. It ...
provinces of South Africa, in addition to
Eswatini Eswatini ( ; ss, eSwatini ), officially the Kingdom of Eswatini and formerly named Swaziland ( ; officially renamed in 2018), is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. It is bordered by Mozambique to its northeast and South Africa to its no ...
and Mozambique. In recent years, however, improved roads, off-road motor vehicles, and air transportation have increased the global distribution of this perishable commodity, and as a result, the plant has been reported in England, Wales, Rome, Amsterdam, Canada, Israel, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the US, freshly packed khat leaves are sold on the markets of New York, Los Angeles, Boston, and Dallas, where the demand is highest. Traditionally, khat is used as a socialising drug as in Yemen where khat-chewing is predominantly a male habit. Khat is so popular in Yemen that its cultivation consumes much of the country's agricultural resources. An estimated 40% of Yemen's water supply goes towards irrigating it, with production increasing by about 10% to 15% every year. One "daily bag" of khat requires an estimated of water to produce. Water consumption is high and groundwater levels in the Sana'a basin are diminishing, so government officials have proposed relocating large portions of the population of Sana'a to the coast of the Red Sea. One reason for the widespread cultivation of khat in Yemen is the high income that it provides for farmers. Some studies done in 2001 estimated that the income from cultivating khat was about 2.5 million Yemeni rials per hectare, while fruits brought only 0.57 million rials per hectare. Between 1970 and 2000, the area on which khat was cultivated was estimated to have grown from 8,000 to 103,000 hectares. In 2000, according to a World Bank estimate, khat accounted for 30% of Yemen's economy. In countries outside the core area of growth and consumption, khat is sometimes chewed at parties or social functions. It may also be used by farmers and labourers for reducing physical fatigue or hunger, and by drivers and students for improving attention. More recently, in 2019, reports indicate that
child soldiers in Yemen Children (defined by the Convention on the Rights of the Child as people under the age of 18) have been recruited for participation in military operations and campaigns throughout history and in many cultures. Children in the military, includ ...
have been chewing khat in order to remain alert on the battlefield.


Effects

Khat consumption induces mild
euphoria Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...
and excitement, similar to that conferred by strong coffee. Individuals become very talkative under the influence of the plant. Animal testing has shown that khat causes an increase in motoric activity. The effects of oral administration of cathinone occur more rapidly than the effects of amphetamine pills; roughly 15 minutes as compared to 30 minutes in amphetamine. Khat can induce manic behaviours and hyperactivity, similar in effects to those produced by amphetamine. The use of khat results in constipation.
Dilated pupil Mydriasis is the dilation of the pupil, usually having a non-physiological cause, or sometimes a physiological pupillary response. Non-physiological causes of mydriasis include disease, trauma, or the use of certain types of drugs. Normally, as ...
s (
mydriasis Mydriasis is the dilation of the pupil, usually having a non-physiological cause, or sometimes a physiological pupillary response. Non-physiological causes of mydriasis include disease, trauma, or the use of certain types of drugs. Normally, as ...
) are prominent during khat consumption, reflecting the
sympathomimetic Sympathomimetic drugs (also known as adrenergic drugs and adrenergic amines) are stimulant compounds which mimic the effects of endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system. Examples of sympathomimetic effects include increases in hea ...
effects of the drug, which are also reflected in increased heart rate and blood pressure. Long-term use can precipitate permanent tooth darkening (of a greenish tinge), susceptibility to ulcers, and diminished sex drive. Khat is an effective anorectic, causing loss of appetite. It is unclear if the consumption of khat directly affects the mental health of the user or not. Occasionally, a psychotic episode can result, resembling a hypomanic state in presentation. In humans, its prolonged consumption creates an uplifted mood and a sense of release from time and space.


Effects by timeframe

Immediate *alertness *arousal *concentration *confidence *constipation *dilated pupils *
euphoria Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...
*friendliness *increased blood pressure *increased heart rate *insomnia *
mania Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together wit ...
* psychosis *suppressed appetite *talkativeness * thought disorder *verbosity Long-term * depression *infrequent hallucinations *impaired inhibition (similar to alcohol) *increased risk of myocardial infarction (heart attack) *oral cancer * psychosis in extreme cases in the genetically predisposed * weight loss Indeterminate * death *stroke following
acute coronary syndrome Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a syndrome (a set of signs and symptoms) due to decreased blood flow in the coronary arteries such that part of the heart muscle is unable to function properly or dies. The most common symptom is centrally loca ...
(clogging of the artery)either from impaired insight into symptoms by the khat chewer, delay to care, or poorly understood
pathophysiological Pathophysiology ( physiopathology) – a convergence of pathology with physiology – is the study of the disordered physiological processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with a disease or injury. Pathology is th ...
mechanisms


Chemistry and pharmacology

The stimulant effect of the plant was originally attributed to "katin",
cathine -norpseudoephedrine, also known as cathine and (+)-norpseudoephedrine, is a psychoactive drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes which acts as a stimulant. Along with cathinone, it is found naturally in '' Catha edulis'' (kha ...
, a
phenethylamine Phenethylamine (PEA) is an organic compound, natural monoamine alkaloid, and trace amine, which acts as a central nervous system stimulant in humans. In the brain, phenethylamine regulates monoamine neurotransmission by binding to trace amin ...
-type substance isolated from the plant. However, the attribution was disputed by reports showing the plant extracts from fresh leaves contained another substance more behaviourally active than cathine. In 1975, the related alkaloid
cathinone Cathinone (also known as benzoylethanamine, or β-keto-amphetamine) is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub '' Catha edulis'' (khat) and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine, methcathinone and other amphetamines. It is probably the m ...
was isolated, and its absolute configuration, (S)-2-Amino-1-phenylpropan-1-one, was established in 1978. Cathinone is not very stable and breaks down to produce cathine and
norephedrine Phenylpropanolamine (PPA) is a sympathomimetic agent which is used as a decongestant and appetite suppressant. It was commonly used in prescription and over-the-counter cough and cold preparations. In veterinary medicine, it is used to contro ...
. These chemicals belong to the PPA (phenylpropanolamine) family, a subset of the
phenethylamines Substituted phenethylamines (or simply phenethylamines) are a chemical class of organic compounds that are based upon the phenethylamine structure; the class is composed of all the derivative compounds of phenethylamine which can be formed by ...
related to amphetamines and the catecholamines
epinephrine Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication which is involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It appears as a white microcrystalline granule. Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands and ...
and norepinephrine. In fact, cathinone and cathine have a very similar molecular structure to amphetamine. Khat is sometimes confused with methcathinone (also known as ''cat''), a Schedule I substance that possesses a similar chemical structure to the khat plant's cathinone active component. However, both the side effects and the addictive properties of methcathinone are much stronger than those associated with khat use. When khat leaves dry, the more potent chemical, cathinone, decomposes within 48 hours, leaving behind the milder chemical, cathine. Thus, harvesters transport khat by packaging the fresh leaves and stems in plastic bags or wrapping them in banana leaves to preserve their moisture and keep the cathinone potent. It is also common for them to sprinkle the plant with water frequently or use refrigeration during transportation. When the khat leaves are chewed, cathine and cathinone are released and absorbed through the mucous membranes of the mouth as well as the lining of the stomach. The action of cathine and cathinone on the reuptake of
epinephrine Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication which is involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It appears as a white microcrystalline granule. Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands and ...
and norepinephrine has been demonstrated in lab animals, showing that one or both of these chemicals cause(s) the body to recycle these neurotransmitters more slowly, resulting in the wakefulness and insomnia associated with khat use. Receptors for
serotonin Serotonin () or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex and multifaceted, modulating mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vas ...
show a high affinity for cathinone, suggesting this chemical is responsible for feelings of euphoria associated with chewing khat. In mice, cathinone produces the same types of nervous pacing or repetitive scratching behaviours associated with amphetamines. The effects of cathinone peak after 15 to 30 minutes, with nearly 98% of the substance metabolised into norephedrine by the liver. Cathine is somewhat less understood, being believed to act upon the
adrenergic receptors The adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of many catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) produced by the body, but also many medications like beta ...
causing the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. It has a half-life of about three hours in humans. The medication bromocriptine can reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms within 24 hours.


Demographics

An estimated 5 to 10 million people globally use khat on a daily basis. It is grown principally by communities in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula, where khat-chewing has a long history as a social custom dating back thousands of years. The traditional form of khat chewing in Yemen involves only male users; khat chewing by females is less formal and less frequent. Researchers estimate about 70–80% of Yemenis between 16 and 50 years old chew khat, at least on occasion. Approximately 60–90% of male and 35% of female Yemenis chew khat daily. Before Yemeni unification in 1990, khat chewing was largely confined to the north-west mountains of the country, where khat grows. Yemenis spend an estimated 14.6 million man-hours per day chewing khat. Researchers have also estimated that families spend about 17% of their income on khat.


History

According to some sources, khat was first grown in Kenya, with the explorer
Sir Richard Burton Sir Richard Francis Burton (; 19 March 1821 – 20 October 1890) was a British explorer, writer, orientalist scholar,and soldier. He was famed for his travels and explorations in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, as well as his extraordinary kn ...
suggesting the plant was later introduced to Yemen from Ethiopia in the 15th century. He specifically mentions the eastern city of Harar as the birthplace of the plant. However, amongst communities in the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
( Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia) and the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
, khat-chewing has a long history as a social custom dating back thousands of years. Ancient Egyptian imperial cults considered the khat plant a sacred substance, which was capable of realizing a user's divinity. These early Egyptians consumed the plant ceremoniously in attempts to transcend into "
apotheosis Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has ...
" and or garner and manifest
mystical experiences Scholarly approaches to mysticism include typologies of mysticism and the explanation of mystical states. Since the 19th century, mystical experience has evolved as a distinctive concept. It is closely related to "mysticism" but lays sole emphasi ...
, systemic trances, and other metaphysical experiences rather than habitual recreational use or abuse. Sufis also used it to intensify their mystical experience and to facilitate a sense of union with God. The earliest known documented description of khat is found in the ''Kitab al-Saidala fi al-Tibb'' , an 11th-century work on
pharmacy Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it links heal ...
and materia medica written by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, a Persian scientist and
biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in ...
. Unaware of its origins, al-Bīrūnī wrote that khat is: In 1854,
Malay Malay may refer to: Languages * Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore ** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century ** Indonesi ...
author Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir noted that the custom of chewing khat was prevalent in
Al Hudaydah Al-Hudaydah ( ar, الْحُدَيْدَة, al-ḥudayda), also transliterated as Hodeda, Hodeida, Hudaida or Hodeidah, is the fourth-largest city in Yemen and its principal port on the Red Sea. As of 2004, its population was 402,560 and it is ...
in Yemen: In 1856, English writer Charles Dickens also described the custom of khat chewing in the Horn region and the adjacent Gulf territories, likening it to drinking strong
green tea Green tea is a type of tea that is made from '' Camellia sinensis'' leaves and buds that have not undergone the same withering and oxidation process which is used to make oolong teas and black teas. Green tea originated in China, and since the ...
: Nowadays khat consumption is limited to
East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historical ...
and South Western Arabia. These countries include Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia (includes
Somaliland Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
), Uganda, and Yemen. The author Yousif Al Zarouni writes in his book: Following a ban on khat in the British-governed Aden Protectorate, the Qāt Commission of Inquiry in Aden concluded: "Qāt does not create an addiction, like opium or hashish, in that those who are suddenly deprived of it, do not suffer physical consequences."


Regulation

In 1965, the World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Dependence-producing Drugs' ''Fourteenth Report'' noted, "The Committee was pleased to note the resolution of the Economic and Social Council with respect to khat, confirming the view that the abuse of this substance is a regional problem and may best be controlled at that level." For this reason, khat was not scheduled under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. In 1980, the WHO classified the plant as a
drug of abuse Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods which are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, ...
that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence (less than tobacco or alcohol), although the WHO does not consider khat to be seriously addictive. It is a controlled or illegal substance in some countries, but is legal for sale and production in others.


Africa


Ethiopia

Khat is legal in Ethiopia.


Somalia

Khat is legal in Somalia.


Djibouti

Khat is legal in Djibouti.Thomson Gale (Firm), ''Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook 2007'', Volume 1, (Thomson Gale: 2006), p. 545.


Kenya

Khat is legal in Kenya. However, two of its active components, cathinone and cathine, are classed as Class C substances.


South Africa

In South Africa, ''Catha edulis'' is a protected tree. The use of khat is illegal.


Uganda

Miraa is legal in Uganda but efforts are underway (as of October 2015) to ban it.


Asia


Bangladesh

Khat is illegal in Bangladesh.


China

Khat is illegal in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
.


Hong Kong

Khat is regarded as a dangerous drug in Hong Kong. Traffickers can face a penalty up to HK$5 million as well as life imprisonment.


Taiwan

In Taiwan, khat is illegal. It is classified as a narcotic drug.


Israel

Khat, called "Gat" in Israel, is consumed mainly by Yemenite Jews. The activity of chewing its leaves is called "lehazen" ( he, לכזן). The process of chewing the Gat can take up to several hours. Some chew the Gat in a gathering which is called "tahazina" ( he, תכזינה). The Gat is grown traditionally in private gardens, but it may be found in some markets. Gat is legal in Israel as long as it is consumed in its natural form, but the distillation of its components is illegal. Some use the plant as a hedge since it is an evergreen. In 2003, Hagigat, a pill based on extracted
cathinone Cathinone (also known as benzoylethanamine, or β-keto-amphetamine) is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub '' Catha edulis'' (khat) and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine, methcathinone and other amphetamines. It is probably the m ...
, began to be sold in kiosks in Israel. Following several cases of hospitalisation, the
Israeli Ministry of Health The Ministry of Health ( he, מִשְׂרַד הַבְּרִיאוּת, translit. ''Misrad HaBri'ut'') is a ministry in the Israeli government, responsible for formulating health policies. The ministry plans, supervises, licenses, and coordinat ...
classified cathinone as a dangerous drug, and ''Hagigat'' was outlawed. The plant itself is allowed to be chewed and sold in its natural state, as no harm was found in normal quantities. As of June 2012, the Israeli anti-drug authority announced that beverages containing Khat are considered illegal as per the dangerous drug ordinance of the state of Israel.


Indonesia

Khat is illegal in Indonesia.


Saudi Arabia

Khat is illegal in Saudi Arabia.


United Arab Emirates

Khat is illegal in the United Arab Emirates under federal law number 14 of 1995 on the Countermeasures against Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. Schedule No. 4, Part 2(5), provides for the prohibition of the cultivation and possession of khat. The possession and selling of khat may lead to life imprisonment.


Yemen

Khat is legal in Yemen. However, cultivation of the crop and the selling of its leaves are governed by a series of regulations. In 2007, the Yemeni government passed a law that restricted the cultivation of khat in a number of agricultural flatlands and basins with high water stress. The Law Concerning the General Sales Tax in 2005 also set the tax rate on khat at 20% of its retail price. The widespread cultivation of khat in Yemen has exacerbated a severe water shortage. Khat is much more water-intensive to grow than other crops. It has also played a major role in a famine in the country.


Europe


Belgium

Khat has been illegal in Belgium since 2006.


Denmark

Khat has been illegal in Denmark since 1993. In 2009, the
Danish Health Authority The Danish Health Authority ( da, Sundhedsstyrelsen) is a state-owned entity in Denmark sorting under the Ministry of Health. It was founded in 1909 and is situated in Copenhagen in the area of Islands Brygge. Its areas of responsibility range wid ...
investigated khat use among
Somalis in Denmark Somalis in Denmark are citizens and residents of Denmark who are of Somali descent. By December 2018, nearly 1000 Somalis in Denmark lost their residence permits after the Danish Immigration Service started a review of the permits in 2017. The pe ...
. A questionnaire with 848 respondents was used. The responses indicated that 48% of Somali males and 16% of females used the narcotic on a monthly basis and that 29% of males and 6% of females used it two times or more a week. Half the respondents had never used khat. The responses indicated that Somalis constituted the great majority of users in Denmark. The report also investigated attitudes towards khat use among Somalis in Denmark. In total, two out of three respondents stated that khat is a problem for social integration into Danish society, while one in three users stated the same. Responses indicated that two out of three considered khat to be part of Somali culture, although two in three also stated that they agree that khat should be banned in Denmark.


Finland

Khat is classified as an illegal drug in Finland, and possession, use and sale of the substance is prohibited and punishable. As with all illegal drugs, operating a motor vehicle with detectable levels of Khat or its metabolites in one's system can also lead to a conviction for
driving under the influence Driving under the influence (DUI)—also called driving while impaired, impaired driving, driving while intoxicated (DWI), drunk driving, operating while intoxicated (OWI), operating under the influence (OUI), operating vehicle under the infl ...
, even if the driver does not appear intoxicated.


France

Khat is prohibited in France as a stimulant since 1957.


Germany

In Germany, cathinone is listed as a "non-trafficable substance", which makes the possession, sale and purchase of fresh khat illegal. The derivative cathine, with "norpseudoephedrin" listed as an alternate name, is only available on prescription. In 2017, 5815 kg of khat was discovered by customs officials in Frankfurt. In June 2018, 324 kg of khat was discovered in packages from East Africa.


Iceland

In August 2010 the Icelandic police intercepted khat smuggling for the first time. 37 kg were confiscated. The drugs were most likely intended for sale in Canada. Again in May 2011 the police intercepted around 60 kg.


Ireland

Khat is a controlled drug for the purpose of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1977 and Schedule 1 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1988. As such its unauthorised possession and supply is prohibited.


Italy

Khat is inserted in the Table I of the Italian official list of psychoactive drugs under the name "Catha edulis pianta" (English: "Catha edulis plant") and thus possession is forbidden.


Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the active ingredients of khat,
cathine -norpseudoephedrine, also known as cathine and (+)-norpseudoephedrine, is a psychoactive drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes which acts as a stimulant. Along with cathinone, it is found naturally in '' Catha edulis'' (kha ...
and
cathinone Cathinone (also known as benzoylethanamine, or β-keto-amphetamine) is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub '' Catha edulis'' (khat) and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine, methcathinone and other amphetamines. It is probably the m ...
, are qualified as hard drugs and forbidden. Use is mostly limited to the Somali community. In 2008 health minister
Ab Klink Abraham "Ab" Klink (born 2 November 1958) is a retired Dutch politician of Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and sociologist. He is a corporate director of the VGZ Cooperative since 1 January 2014 and a professor at the Vrije Universiteit Amster ...
decided against qualifying the unprocessed plant as drugs after consultation with experts. However, on 9 January 2012 the Dutch government announced a ban on khat.


Norway

In Norway, khat is classified as a
narcotic The term narcotic (, from ancient Greek ναρκῶ ''narkō'', "to make numb") originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with numbing or paralyzing properties. In the United States, it has since become associated with opiates ...
drug and is illegal to use, sell and possess. Most users are Somali immigrants and khat is smuggled from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Norwegian Customs seized 10 metric tons of khat in 2010, an increase from less than 4 in 2006. In 2016, Oslo municipality estimated 50–70% of Somali immigrant males to be habitual users.


Poland

In Poland, khat is a classified narcotic drug, and is illegal to use, sell and possess.


Slovenia

Khat is classified as an illegal drug in Slovenia.


Sweden

The drug was prohibited in Sweden in 1989, without research. In 2007, it was estimated that 30% of Somali males in Sweden were using khat. Smuggling seizures by police amounted to about 9 tonnes annually.


Switzerland

In Switzerland, khat is illegal. It is classified as a narcotic drug.


United Kingdom

Khat was made illegal in the UK on 24 June 2014. Concerns had been expressed by commentators, health professionals and community members about the use of khat in the UK, particularly by immigrants from Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia. Studies of the effects of khat use by immigrants on their mental health suggested that there was a need for better research on khat-chewing and its possible link with psychiatric disorders; it also suggested that public discourse on the issue displayed elements of a moral panic. Some Somali community organisations also campaigned for khat to be banned. As a result of these concerns, the Home Office commissioned successive research studies to look into the matter, and in 2005, presented the question of khat's legal status before the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. The study concluded that most of the participants who were using khat were using it moderately in terms of both the quantity used and the frequency and duration of chewing sessions, and that khat use was typically a social activity. Only a small minority of the study participants' khat use was judged to be excessive. After a careful review of the evidence, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs recommended in January 2006 that the status of khat as a legal substance should remain for the time being. In 2008, Conservative politician Sayeeda Warsi stated that a future Conservative government would ban khat. The website of the Conservative Party, which in 2010 became the larger party in a UK coalition government, previously stated that a Conservative government would "Tackle unacceptable cultural practices by", amongst other measures, "classifying Khat". In 2009, the Home Office commissioned two new studies in the effects of khat use and in June 2010, a Home Office spokesperson stated: "The Government is committed to addressing any form of substance misuse and will keep the issue of khat use under close scrutiny". During a parliamentary debate on the legality issue on 11 January 2012, Mark Lancaster, the Conservative Member of Parliament for Milton Keynes, stated that the importation of Khat into the UK stands at 10 tonnes every week. On 23 January 2013, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) said there was "insufficient evidence" that khat caused health problems. The ACMD said there was "no evidence" khat was directly linked with serious or organised crime, and was chewed to obtain a "mild stimulant effect much less potent than stimulant drugs, such as amphetamine". On 3 July 2013, the
British Home Secretary The secretary of state for the Home Department, otherwise known as the home secretary, is a senior minister of the Crown in the Government of the United Kingdom. The home secretary leads the Home Office, and is responsible for all national ...
Theresa May announced that khat was to be banned in Britain, designating it a Class C substance under the
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It represents action in line with treaty commitments under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nation ...
. Alex Miller, a journalist from the Montreal, Canada-based magazine and television channel Vice, looked into the use of the substance and the potential impact of the ban for BBC nightly current affairs programme Newsnight and for a Vice documentary. Kenyan MPs appealed to the UK not to "condemn people" by banning the herbal stimulant khat In March 2014, the United Kingdom House of Commons' Home Affairs Select Committee announced that it would continue to lobby for the UK government not to go through with its intended ban on khat. The committee had shortly before also completed an inquiry and a report recommending that the British authorities refrain from banning the plant. On 12 May 2014, the House of Lords passed a Motion to Approve the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Designation)(Amendment) (No. 2)(England, Wales and Scotland) Order 2014, in order to control ''Catha edulis'' as a Class C drug. An amendment was proposed stating that, "this House regrets that Her Majesty’s Government’s plans for the introduction of the Order do not include provisions for a 12-month review of the impact of the reclassification of khat in view of the highly unusual community focus of its use, for putting a detailed policing strategy in place before a ban takes effect, or for a health strategy to prevent a transfer of addiction to other substances; and do not commit the Department for International Development to do more work with the government of Kenya to alleviate the effect of the reclassification on the Kenyan economy." However, the amendment was defeated by vote. The prohibition came into effect on 24 June 2014. In January 2015, the '' Bristol Post'' reported that most khat houses in the city had closed down, "forcing users to take the drug in their homes instead". The local police had initially not sought to enforce the ban, giving users a grace period, but according to the ''Bristol Post'' had recently started to take action against khat use and had issued three warnings and a caution. Additionally, in September 2014 the police had seized 24 bags of dried khat from a property in Easton, but no arrests were made. Additionally, the Somali Resource Centre indicated that the ban seemed to have been effective, and that the prohibition had all but destroyed the import market since the plant has to be fresh in order to be consumed. A consultation with Somalis in Glasgow undertaken by the national voluntary organisation Fast Forward at the request of the Somali Association in Glasgow in October 2014 suggested that khat continues to be used in both fresh and dried forms by some Somalis in the city, and that the ban has also led some users to seek out other substances. The ban has reportedly served to increase the price of khat in the UK. Channel 4 News reported in September 2014 that before the ban, 20 tonnes of khat arrived at
Heathrow Airport Heathrow Airport (), called ''London Airport'' until 1966 and now known as London Heathrow , is a major international airport in London, England. It is the largest of the six international airports in the London airport system (the others be ...
daily, and it would sell for £3 per bundle. After the ban, it was reportedly selling at £30 per bundle.


North America


Canada

In Canada, khat is a controlled substance under Schedule IV of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA), meaning it is illegal to seek or obtain unless approved by a
medical practitioner A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
. Possession of khat for personal use is not an arraignable offence in Canada. The maximum punishment for trafficking or possession with the intent of trafficking is ten years in prison. In 2008, Canadian authorities reported that khat is the most common illegal drug being smuggled at airports. However, in 2012 the Ontario Court of Appeal upheld a 2011 absolute discharge of a young woman who brought 34 kilograms of khat into Canada in 2009. According to the defence, the ruling recognises that there is no empirical evidence that khat is harmful. The courts in Quebec and Ontario continued to discharge the accused for bringing khat into Canada for the same reason (no evidence of harmfulness of khat) in 2014 and 2016.


United States

In the United States, cathinone is a Schedule I drug, according to the US Controlled Substance Act. The 1993
DEA The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA; ) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Justice tasked with combating drug trafficking and distribution within the U.S. It is the lead agency for domestic enf ...
rule placing cathinone in Schedule I noted that it was effectively also banning khat: ''Catha edulis'' (khat) is a stimulant similar to that of amphetamine and its congeners, not a drug as categorised by US FDA (United States Food & Drug Administration) and FDA import Alert #66-23 (published date 03/18/2011) states that "Districts may detain, without physical examination, all entries of khat", based on section 801(a) (3) of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (abbreviated as FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C) is a set of laws passed by the United States Congress in 1938 giving authority to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee the safety of f ...
on the grounds that "its labeling fails to bear adequate directions for use." As federal and local khat raids have often targeted immigrants from countries where khat is legal, issues of cultural misunderstanding have sometimes been raised. The plant itself is specifically banned in Missouri: In California, both the plant itself as well as cathinone, its active component, are illegal.


Oceania


Australia

In Australia, the importation of khat is controlled under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956. It is illegal to import khat into Australia for personal use. Khat can be imported only for medical or scientific use. Importing khat without a permit is subject to fines or prosecution. In 2003, the total number of khat annual permits was 294 and the total number of individual khat permits was 202 however as of 1 December 2013, permits for the use of khat by individuals for recreational/cultural purposes are no longer issued. There are currently no plans by the Australian Government to amend the regulations to allow the importation of khat for personal use. Khat is listed as a Schedule 2 dangerous drug in Queensland, in the same category as cannabis. Legality in New South Wales is not clear. The importation of Khat (''Catha edulis'') material (includes material that is fresh, dried, powdered, capsules or tablets) is prohibited under the Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956 unless the person importing the material is the holder of both a license to import and a permit to import granted by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)
Biosecurity Act 2015


New Zealand

In New Zealand, khat is listed as a Class C drug, in the same category as cannabis and
codeine Codeine is an opiate and prodrug of morphine mainly used to treat pain, coughing, and diarrhea. It is also commonly used as a recreational drug. It is found naturally in the sap of the opium poppy, ''Papaver somniferum''. It is typically use ...
.


South America

In South America, there is no legislation regarding khat; the active ingredients in the plant can be found in several weight control compounds sold in the continent.


Research programs

In 2009, the University of Minnesota launched the Khat Research Program (KRP), a multidisciplinary research and training program focusing on the neurobehavioral and health effects of khat, led by Prof. Dr.
Mustafa al'Absi Mustafa al’Absi, Ph.D. is a Professor of Behavioral Medicine and the holder of the Max & Mary La Due Pickworth Chair at University of Minnesota Medical School. Dr. al'Absi also holds faculty positions at Department of Family Medicine, Department ...
. The program was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute for Drug Abuse of the United States. The inaugural event for the KRP was held in Sharm El-Sheik, Egypt, in December, 2009 in collaboration with the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO) and its local affiliates.


See also

*
Betel leaves The betel (''Piper betle'') is a vine of the family Piperaceae, which includes pepper and kava. The betel plant is native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious perennial, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plant ...
, a herb in Southeast Asia * Coca, a herb used for elaboration of cocaine and traditional chewing * List of Southern African indigenous trees *
Phenylpropanolamine Phenylpropanolamine (PPA) is a sympathomimetic agent which is used as a decongestant and appetite suppressant. It was commonly used in prescription and over-the-counter cough and cold preparations. In veterinary medicine, it is used to contro ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * *Gatter, Peer (2012). ''Politics of Qat: The Role of a Drug in Ruling Yemen''. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Link to the table of contents and to selected chapters
* * * * *


External links


Khat drug profile
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) is an agency of the European Union located in Lisbon, Portugal, and established in 1993. In June 2022, the Council of the European Union approved a reform of the organization w ...
(EMCDDA) * {{Taxonbar, from=Q207642
edulis Edulis, edible in Latin, is a species name present in a number of Latin species names: * '' Acioa edulis'', the Castanha-de-cutia, a fruit and timber tree species * '' Aglaia edulis'', a plant species found in Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indon ...
Anorectics Entheogens Flora of Ethiopia Flora of Somalia Herbal and fungal stimulants Medicinal plants Trees of Africa Protected trees of South Africa Yemeni culture Drugs in Yemen Least concern plants Amphetamine alkaloids Drugs in Somalia Masticatories