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Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are
native Native may refer to: People * Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth * Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory ** Native Americans (disambiguation) In arts and entert ...
to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the
center of diversity A center of origin is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties. They are also considered centers of diversity. Centers of origin were first identified in 1924 by Ni ...
is in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
.Liu, P. L., et al. (2012)
Phylogeny of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' L.: Evidence from single-copy nuclear gene and chloroplast DNA sequences.
''PLOS One'' 7(11), e48970. .
Countless horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.


Description

The genus ''Chrysanthemum'' are perennial
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...
flowering plants, sometimes
subshrub A subshrub (Latin ''suffrutex'') or dwarf shrub is a short shrub, and is a woody plant. Prostrate shrub is a related term. "Subshrub" is often used interchangeably with "bush".Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Der ...
s. The
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
are alternate, divided into leaflets and may be
pinnatisect The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
, lobed, or serrate (toothed) but rarely entire. The compound inflorescence is an array of several
flower heads A pseudanthium (Greek for "false flower"; ) is an inflorescence that resembles a flower. The word is sometimes used for other structures that are neither a true flower nor a true inflorescence. Examples of pseudanthia include flower heads, compos ...
, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. Pollen grains are approximately 34 microns. The fruit is a ribbed
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
.''Chrysanthemum''.
Flora of China. eFloras.


Taxonomy

The genus Chrysanthemum was first formally described by Linnaeus in 1753, with 14 species, and hence bears his name (L.) as the botanical authority. The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus ''Dendranthema''. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Botanical Congress in 1999 changed the defining species of the genus to ''Chrysanthemum indicum'', restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus ''Chrysanthemum''. Genera now separated from ''Chrysanthemum'' include ''
Argyranthemum ''Argyranthemum'' (marguerite, marguerite daisy, dill daisy) is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Asteraceae. Members of this genus are sometimes also placed in the genus '' Chrysanthemum''. The genus is endemic to Macaronesia ...
'', '' Glebionis'', '' Leucanthemopsis'', '' Leucanthemum'', '' Rhodanthemum'', and '' Tanacetum''.


Species

, ''
Plants of the World Online Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It was launched in March 2017 with the ultimate aim being "to enable users to access information on all the world's known seed-bearing plants by ...
'' accepted the following species: * ''
Chrysanthemum aphrodite Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum arcticum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' L. * ''
Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Ling * ''
Chrysanthemum arisanense ''Chrysanthemum arisanense'' is a flowering pant within the Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly refe ...
'' Hayata * ''
Chrysanthemum chalchingolicum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Grubov * '' Chrysanthemum chanetii'' H.Lév. * ''
Chrysanthemum crassum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' (Kitam.) Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum cuneifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum daucifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...
'' Pers. * ''
Chrysanthemum dichrum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' (C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek. * ''
Chrysanthemum foliaceum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' (G.F.Peng, C.Shih & S.Q.Zhang) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou * '' Chrysanthemum glabriusculum'' (W.W.Sm.) Hand.-Mazz. * ''
Chrysanthemum horaimontanum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Masam. * ''
Chrysanthemum hypargyreum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Diels * ''
Chrysanthemum indicum ''Chrysanthemum indicum'' is a flowering plant commonly called Indian chrysanthemum, within the family Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 gene ...
'' L. * ''
Chrysanthemum integrifolium ''Arctanthemum integrifolium'', the entire-leaved daisy, is a subarctic species of plant in the Asteraceae, sunflower family. It grows in Alaska, northern Canada, Peary Land in northern Greenland, and the East Chukotka Peninsula, Chukotka region ...
'' Richardson * ''
Chrysanthemum japonense ''Chrysanthemum japonense'' (also known as ''ashizuri noji-giku Ashizuri'' (Japanese) meaning ''"Point wild roadside daisy"'' or gold / silver chrysanthemum in English) is a flowering plant within the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' of the family Astera ...
'' (Makino) Nakai * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''konoanum'' Makino * ''
Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium ''Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium'' is a flowering plant within the family Asteraceae and the genus ''Chrysanthemum''. It is a perennial flowering plant that is often noted because of its yellow flowers. It has 18 chromosomes at the diploid stage. ...
'' Makino * ''
Chrysanthemum leucanthum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' (Makino) Makino * '' Chrysanthemum longibracteatum'' (C.Shih, G.F.Peng & S.Y.Jin) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou * ''
Chrysanthemum maximoviczii Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...
'' Kom. * '' Chrysanthemum miyatojimense'' Kitam. * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' (Ramat.) Hemsl. * ''
Chrysanthemum morii Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Hayata * '' Chrysanthemum naktongense'' Nakai * ''
Chrysanthemum ogawae Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum okiense Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum oreastrum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Hance * ''
Chrysanthemum ornatum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' Hemsl. * ''
Chrysanthemum parvifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...
'' C.C.Chang * ''
Chrysanthemum potentilloides Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' Hand.-Mazz. * '' Chrysanthemum rhombifolium'' (Y.Ling & C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek. * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''rubellum'' Sealy * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''shimotomaii'' Makino * '' Chrysanthemum sinuatum'' Ledeb. * ''
Chrysanthemum vestitum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
'' (Hemsl.) Kitam. * ''
Chrysanthemum yantaiense Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...
'' M.Sun & J.T.Chen * '' Chrysanthemum yoshinaganthum'' Makino * ''
Chrysanthemum zawadskii ''Chrysanthemum zawadzkii'' is a species of short perennial herb in the family Asteraceae native to Europe. The species was described from the Pieniny mountains in 1829 by Franz Herbich and named after Aleksander Zawadzki. The species is also kno ...
'' Herbich * ''
Chrysanthemum zhuozishanense Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...
'' L.Q.Zhao & Jie Yang Former species include: * ''Chrysanthemum carinatum'' = ''
Ismelia carinata ''Ismelia carinata'', the tricolour chrysanthemum, tricolor daisy, or annual chrysanthemum, is an ornamental plant native to north Africa that is cultivated as a garden plant and grows as a weed in California. It is the sole species in the genus ...
'' * ''Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium'' = '' Tanacetum cinerariifolium'' * ''Chrysanthemum coccineum'' = ''
Tanacetum coccineum ''Tanacetum'' is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
'' * ''Chrysanthemum coronarium'' = '' Glebionis coronaria'' * ''Chrysanthemum frutescens'' = ''
Argyranthemum frutescens ''Argyranthemum frutescens'', known as Paris daisy, marguerite or marguerite daisy, is a perennial plant known for its flowers. It is native to the Canary Islands (part of Spain). Hybrids derived from this species (garden marguerites) are widely ...
'' * ''Chrysanthemum maximum'' = ''
Leucanthemum maximum ''Leucanthemum maximum'' is a species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name max chrysanthemum. Range It is native to France and Spain but it can be found growing wild in other parts of the world as an introduced speci ...
'' * '' Chrysanthemum pacificum'' = ''
Ajania pacifica ''Chrysanthemum pacificum'', commonly called gold and silver chrysanthemum,Glebionis segetum ''Glebionis segetum'' (syn. ''Chrysanthemum segetum'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, probably native only to the eastern Mediterranean region but now naturalized in western and northern Europe as well as China and par ...
''


Etymology

The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the grc, χρυσός ''chrysos'' (gold) and grc, ἄνθεμον ''anthemon'' (flower).


Ecology

Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. This is also known as the favorite flower for the month of November.


History

Chrysanthemums () were first cultivated in China as a flowering
herb In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...
as far back as the 15th century BC. Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630. By 2014 it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China. The plant is renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen () in
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
and East Asian Art. The plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival. Chrysanthemum cultivation began in Japan during the Nara and Heian periods (early 8th to late 12th centuries), and gained popularity in the Edo period (early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes, and were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity.History of chrysanthemums.
Odawara City
In addition, from the Meiji period (late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over 20 cm (7.87 in) in diameter, called the ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums. The Imperial Seal of Japan is a chrysanthemum and the institution of the monarchy is also called the Chrysanthemum Throne. A number of festivals and shows take place throughout Japan in autumn when the flowers bloom. is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show. Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John Stevens imported a cultivated variety known as 'Dark Purple' from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.The New York Botanical Garden, ''Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume X'' Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797


Economic uses


Ornamental uses

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' (syn. ''C.'' × ''grandiflorum''), derived primarily from ''C. indicum'', but also involving other species. Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's
Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. History The Award of Garden Merit ...
(confirmed 2017). Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups, garden hardy and exhibition. Garden hardy chrysanthemums are perennials capable of wintering in most northern latitudes. Exhibition varieties are not usually as sturdy. Garden hardy varieties are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms with little if any mechanical assistance, such as staking, and withstanding wind and rain. Exhibition varieties, though, require staking, overwintering in a relatively dry, cool environment, and sometimes the addition of night lights. The exhibition varieties can be used to create many amazing plant forms, such as large disbudded blooms, spray forms, and many artistically trained forms, such as thousand-bloom, standard (trees), fans, hanging baskets, topiary,
bonsai Bonsai ( ja, 盆栽, , tray planting, ) is the Japanese art of growing and training miniature trees in pots, developed from the traditional Chinese art form of ''penjing''. Unlike ''penjing'', which utilizes traditional techniques to produce ...
, and cascades. Chrysanthemum blooms are divided into 13 different bloom forms by the US National Chrysanthemum Society, Inc., which is in keeping with the international classification system. The bloom forms are defined by the way in which the ray and disk florets are arranged. Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many individual flowers (florets), each one capable of producing a seed. The disk florets are in the center of the bloom head, and the ray florets are on the perimeter. The ray florets are considered imperfect flowers, as they only possess the female reproductive organs, while the disk florets are considered perfect flowers, as they possess both male and female reproductive organs. Irregular incurves are bred to produce a giant head called an ''ogiku''. The disk florets are concealed in layers of curving ray florets that hang down to create a 'skirt'. Regular incurves are similar, but usually with smaller blooms and a dense, globular form. Intermediate incurve blooms may have broader florets and a less densely flowered head. In the reflex form, the disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a
mop A mop (such as a floor mop) is a mass or bundle of coarse strings or yarn, etc., or a piece of cloth, sponge or other absorbent material, attached to a pole or stick. It is used to soak up liquid, for cleaning floors and other surfaces, to mop ...
-like appearance. The decorative form is similar to reflex blooms, but the ray florets usually do not radiate at more than a 90° angle to the stem. The pompon form is fully double, of small size, and very globular in form. Single and semidouble blooms have exposed disk florets and one to seven rows of ray florets. In the anemone form, the disk florets are prominent, often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. The spoon-form disk florets are visible and the long, tubular ray florets are spatulate. In the spider form, the disk florets are concealed, and the ray florets are tube-like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. In the brush and thistle variety, the disk florets may be visible. In Japan, a form of ''
bonsai Bonsai ( ja, 盆栽, , tray planting, ) is the Japanese art of growing and training miniature trees in pots, developed from the traditional Chinese art form of ''penjing''. Unlike ''penjing'', which utilizes traditional techniques to produce ...
'' chrysanthemum was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. Another method is to use pieces of dead wood and the flower grows over the back along the wood to give the illusion from the front that the miniature tree blooms.


Culinary uses

Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species ''C. morifolium'' are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as chrysanthemum tea (
Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...
Hua is a common transliteration for some Chinese surnames, of which the most common ones are 華/华 () and 花 (). The Cantonese romanizations for 華 and 花 are Wah and Fa, respectively. 華, when pronounced in the fourth tone in Mandarin, is ex ...
The etymology of the various words for ''tea'' reflects the history of transmission of tea drinking culture and trade from China to countries around the world. Nearly all of the words for tea worldwide fall into three broad groups: ''te'', ''cha ...
, pinyin: ''júhuā chá'', in Chinese). In Korea, a
rice wine Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage fermented and distilled from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Rice wine is made by the fermentation of rice starch that has been converted to sugars. Microbes are the so ...
flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called ''gukhwaju'' (국화주). Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as '' mixian'' in broth, or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. Japanese cuisine sashimi uses small chrysanthemums as garnish.


Insecticidal uses

Pyrethrum (''Chrysanthemum '' Tanacetum''">r'' Tanacetum''' cinerariaefolium'') is economically important as a natural source of
insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called pyrethrins, which occur in the
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
s, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an insect-repellent effect. They are harmful to fish, but are far less toxic to
mammal Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
s and birds than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being
biodegradable Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It is generally assumed to be a natural process, which differentiates it from composting. Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradati ...
, and also decompose easily on exposure to light. Pyrethroids such as permethrin are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as leafminer flies including '' L. trifolii''. Persian powder is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.


Environmental uses

Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce
indoor air pollution Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...
by the NASA Clean Air Study.


Cultural significance and symbolism

In some European countries (e.g., France, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Hungary, Croatia), incurve chrysanthemums symbolize death and are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism; similarly, in China, Japan, and Korea of East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty. In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful, with New Orleans as a notable exception. In the
Victorian Victorian or Victorians may refer to: 19th century * Victorian era, British history during Queen Victoria's 19th-century reign ** Victorian architecture ** Victorian house ** Victorian decorative arts ** Victorian fashion ** Victorian literature ...
language of flowers, the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love. The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.


East Asia


China

* The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Beijing and Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year. * The chrysanthemum is one of the " Four Gentlemen" () of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
(the others being the plum blossom, the orchid, and bamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Qian, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers. * A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in Tongxiang, near Hangzhou, China. * Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China. * The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie '' Curse of the Golden Flower'' is a chrysanthemum. * "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén ), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations). * An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city". * The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese Double Ninth Festival. * In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties. Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire. * Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.


Japan

Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme of '' waka'' (Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in the Heian period, and '' Kokin Wakashū'' is the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during the
Kamakura period The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the Genpei War, which saw the struggle betwee ...
, when the Retired Emperor Go-Toba adopted it as the mon (family crest) of the Imperial family, it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During the Edo period from the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums, cherry blossoms, Japanese iris, morning glory, etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and many
chrysanthemum exhibition A chrysanthemum exhibition (菊花展覧会 ''Kikatenrankai'') is a flower show that takes place in various parts of Japan every autumn from October to November. Other terms used are also “Chrysanthemum Festival” or “Chrysanthemum Competit ...
s were held. From the Meiji period in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of ''ogiku'' style cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular. In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the Shinjuku Gyo-en, Meiji Shrine and Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, ''kankokuheisha'') has adopted the chrysanthemum crest. Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditional
Japanese art Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including ancient pottery, sculpture, ink painting and calligraphy on silk and paper, ''ukiyo-e'' paintings and woodblock prints, ceramics, origami, and more recently manga and anime. It ...
s like porcelain, lacquerware and '' kimono''. Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many Japanese people who enter prize plants in contests. Chrysanthemum "dolls", often depicting fictional characters from both traditional sources like '' kabuki'' and contemporary sources like Disney, are displayed throughout the fall months, and the city of Nihonmatsu hosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin of Nihonmatsu Castle. They are also grown into
chrysanthemum bonsai Chrysanthemum ''bonsai'' ( ja, 菊の盆栽, Kiku no bonsai, Chrysanthemum tray planting, ) is a Japanese art form using cultivation techniques to produce, in containers, chrysanthemum flowers that mimic the shape and scale of full size trees, ...
forms. * In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of the Emperor and the Imperial family. In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" (菊花紋章, ''kikukamonshō'' or'' kikkamonshō''), i.e. a
mon Mon, MON or Mon. may refer to: Places * Mon State, a subdivision of Myanmar * Mon, India, a town in Nagaland * Mon district, Nagaland * Mon, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India * Mon, Switzerland, a village in the Canton of Grisons * An ...
of chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include: ** The Imperial Seal of Japan is used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern. ** The Chrysanthemum Throne is the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne. ** The Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum is a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of the
Japanese government The Government of Japan consists of legislative, executive and judiciary branches and is based on popular sovereignty. The Government runs under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947. It is a unitary state, c ...
. ** In imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor. * The
Nagoya Castle is a Japanese castle located in Nagoya, Japan. Nagoya Castle was constructed by the Owari Domain in 1612 during the Edo period on the site of an earlier castle of the Oda clan in the Sengoku period. Nagoya Castle was the heart of one of the ...
Chrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is for ''bonsai'' flowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes. File:Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg, Chrysanthemum crest on the
battleship A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. It dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ...
''Mikasa'' File:高台寺蒔絵-Sake Ewer (Hisage) with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields.jpg, ''Maki-e'' Sake Ewer with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields. early 17th century,
Azuchi–Momoyama period The was the final phase of the in Japanese history from 1568 to 1600. After the outbreak of the Ōnin War in 1467, the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate effectively collapsed, marking the start of the chaotic Sengoku period. In 1568, Oda Nobuna ...
. File:Flower show-J. M. W. Silver.jpg, Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns. File:Hirakata-kikuningyo3231.JPG, "Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005) File:Chrysanthemum,kiku,katori-city,japan.JPG, Chrysanthemums in the Japanese ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style.


Korea

Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the
Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival It is a national flower festival held annually in Masanhappo-gu, Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. The Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival(hangul : 마산가고파 국화축제) celebrates the excellence of the chrysanthemum and has been held ...
. File:Brooklyn Museum - Chrysanthemums Rock and Bird.jpg, Korean painting ''Chrysanthemums, Rock and Bird'', 19th century


West Asia


Iran

In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.


Israel

In 2017, Israel named a new fast-growing Chrysanthemum flower after Narendra Modi, the
Prime Minister of India The prime minister of India (IAST: ) is the head of government of the Republic of India. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and their chosen Council of Ministers, despite the president of India being the nominal head of the ...
, in a special gesture to mark the first visit of an Indian prime minister to the Jewish nation.


Oceania


Australia

In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.


North America


United States

* On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public. * The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of Redwood City, California grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.La Peninsula, xlii (1) * In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration. * The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of Chicago by Mayor Richard J. Daley in 1966. * The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of
Salinas, California Salinas (; Spanish for "Salt Marsh or Salt Flats") is a city in California and the county seat of Monterey County. With a population of 163,542 in the 2020 Census, Salinas is the most populous city in Monterey County. Salinas is an urban area lo ...
. * The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several fraternities and sororities including Chi Phi, Phi Kappa Sigma, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia,
Lambda Kappa Sigma Lambda Kappa Sigma ( or LKS) is an international pharmacy fraternity headquartered in Muskego, Wisconsin. Founded in 1913, it was created to promote the profession of pharmacy among women and advance women within the profession. LKS is the oldest ...
, Sigma Alpha and
Triangle Fraternity (Truth Conquers All) , maxim = , colors = Old Rose Gray , symbol = Engineers' transit , flower = White chrysanthemum , flag = , jewel = , publication = ''Triangle Review'' , philanthropy = FIRST , chapters = 38 Active 4 Colonies , members = 1,200 ...
.


Europe


Italy

Italian composer Giacomo Puccini wrote ''
Crisantemi The Italian composer Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) is regarded as the natural successor to the tradition of Giuseppe Verdi and is considered the greatest Italian opera proponent of his time. Best known for his 12 operas, his style quickly departe ...
'' (1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friend Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta. In Italy (and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the cemetery and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the Day of the Dead (2 November).


Poland

Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day in Poland.


United Kingdom

The UK National Collection of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near Warwick.


Gallery

File:Chrysanthemum February 2008-2.jpg, Bud of a garden chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthème tokyo.jpg, ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' 'Tokyo' File:Chrysanthemum 094557.jpg, Purple Chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum morifolium 08NOV.jpg, pink ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' File:Red chrysanthemum.jpg, Red chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum Plant (1) 06.jpg, Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum 'Vesuvius'.jpg, ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' 'Vesuvius' File:Złocień Zawadzkiego P39.jpg, ''
Chrysanthemum zawadskii ''Chrysanthemum zawadzkii'' is a species of short perennial herb in the family Asteraceae native to Europe. The species was described from the Pieniny mountains in 1829 by Franz Herbich and named after Aleksander Zawadzki. The species is also kno ...
'' File:Chrysanthemum indicum2.jpg, ''
Chrysanthemum indicum ''Chrysanthemum indicum'' is a flowering plant commonly called Indian chrysanthemum, within the family Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 gene ...
'' File:Chrysanthemum japonense var ashizuriense1.jpg, ''
Chrysanthemum japonense ''Chrysanthemum japonense'' (also known as ''ashizuri noji-giku Ashizuri'' (Japanese) meaning ''"Point wild roadside daisy"'' or gold / silver chrysanthemum in English) is a flowering plant within the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' of the family Astera ...
'' var. ''ashizuriense'' File:Beautiful Chrysanthemum.JPG, A peach coloured chrysanthemum File:Tiger tail mum 0004.JPG, Tiger Tail chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum leaves.JPG, Leaves of chrysanthemum plant File:Chrysanthemum × morifolium Dompierre 1.jpg, A chrysanthemum show File:Chrysanthemum 02.jpg, Yellow Chrysanthemum. File:Chrysanthemum 01.jpg, Purple Chrysanthemum


See also

*
List of Lepidoptera that feed on chrysanthemums '' Chrysanthemum'' species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species including: * Bucculatricidae ** Several ''Bucculatrix'' leaf-miner species: *** '' B. chrysanthemella'' *** '' B. leucanthemella'' * Geometridae ...
* Photoperiodism


References


Bibliography

;Books * * * * * * , ''see also''
Species Plantarum ' (Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the ...
;Articles * * * * *


External links

* *
Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Chrysanthemum''



United States National Chrysanthemum Society website


(scroll down for ''Chrysanthemum'')

* ttp://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7404.html University of California web page on aphid management {{Authority control Asteraceae genera Garden plants Leaf vegetables Medicinal plants National symbols of Japan Plants used in bonsai