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Ceviche () is a Peruvian dish typically made from fresh raw fish cured in fresh citrus juices, most commonly lime or lemon. It is also spiced with '' ají'', chili peppers or other seasonings, and julienned red onions, salt, and cilantro are also added . Because the dish is eaten raw and not cooked with heat, it must be prepared fresh and consumed immediately to minimize the risk of
food poisoning Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the spoilage of contaminated food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as prions (the agents of mad cow disease) ...
. Benson et al. ''Peru'' p. 78 Ceviche is often eaten as an appetizer; if eaten as a main dish, it is usually accompanied by side dishes that complement its flavors, such as
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the Convolvulus, bindweed or morning glory family (biology), family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a r ...
, lettuce, maize, avocado, or cooking banana. Harrison, ''Beyond Gumbo'', p. 85 The dish is popular in the Pacific coastal regions of western South America. González and Ross, ''Entre el comal y la olla: fundamentos de gastronomía costarricense'', p. 171 The origin of ceviche is from the ancient Moche culture, which today corresponds to the modern day country of Peru. The technique of macerating raw fish and meat in vinegar, citrus, and spices ( escabeche) was brought to the Americas from Spain and is linked to the Muslim heritage in Spanish cuisine. However, archeological records suggest that something resembling ceviche may have been in western South America as early as 2,000 years ago. The dominant position Lima held through four centuries as the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru allowed for popular dishes such as ceviche to be brought to other Spanish administrative provinces in the region, and in time they became a part of local cuisine by incorporating regional flavors and styles. Revolución de los gustos en el Perú pp. 80-81


Etymology

The first documented evidence of the term is from 1820, in the song "La Chicha," sung by Peruvian soldiers. According to the
Royal Spanish Academy The Royal Spanish Academy ( es, Real Academia Española, generally abbreviated as RAE) is Spain's official royal institution with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, and is affiliated with ...
, the word has the same etymology as the Spanish term , which derives from Mozarabic , in turn descending from Andalusian Arabic , which also derives from
Classical Arabic Classical Arabic ( ar, links=no, ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ, al-ʿarabīyah al-fuṣḥā) or Quranic Arabic is the standardized literary form of Arabic used from the 7th century and throughout the Middle Ages, most notab ...
(, meaning meat cooked in vinegar). It is ultimately from the unattested Middle Persian , from ("vinegar") and ("soup"), which also yielded the Persian word (, a soup made with meat and vinegar). The name of the dish is spelled variously as , , , or , but the most common spelling is ''ceviche'' with ''v'', which is an alternative spelling accepted by the
Royal Spanish Academy The Royal Spanish Academy ( es, Real Academia Española, generally abbreviated as RAE) is Spain's official royal institution with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, and is affiliated with ...
. There are also other local variants of the name, including and .


History

Various explanations of ceviche's origin exist, with Peruvian nationalists favoring a Pre-Hispanic origin. According to some historic sources from Peru, the predecessor of ceviche originated among the Moche, a coastal civilization that began to flourish in current-day northern Peru and southern Ecuador nearly 2000 years ago. In El Salvador, ceviche is a second favorite dish. This tropical country provides a variety of ceviche choices, such as shrimp, fish, octopus, and black clam ceviche. The simple recipe includes Roma tomatoes, onion, cilantro, lime juice, salt, and pepper. The Moche used the fermented juice from the local
banana passionfruit Banana passionfruit (''Passiflora'' supersect. ''Tacsonia''), also known as taxo and curuba, is a group of around 64 '' Passiflora'' species found in South America. Most species in this section are found in high elevation cloud forest habitats. Fl ...
. Recent investigations further show that during the Inca Empire, fish was marinated with ''
chicha ''Chicha'' is a fermented (alcoholic) or non-fermented beverage of Latin America, emerging from the Andes and Amazonia regions. In both the pre- and post-Spanish conquest periods, corn beer (''chicha de jora'') made from a variety of maize land ...
'', an Andean
fermented beverage This is a list of fermented foods, which are foods produced or preserved by the action of microorganisms. In this context, fermentation typically refers to the fermentation of sugar to alcohol using yeast, but other fermentation processes involv ...
. Different chronicles also report that along the Peruvian coast before the arrival of Spaniards, fish was consumed with salt and '' ají''. Nevertheless, most historians agree that ceviche originated during colonial times in present-day Peru and Ecuador. Rodriguez, ''The Great Ceviche Book'', p. 3 Peschiera, ''Cocina Peruana'', p. 35 They propose that the predecessor to the dish was brought to the area by Andalusian women of
Moorish The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a distinct or se ...
background who accompanied the Conquistadors and that this dish eventually evolved into what nowadays is considered ceviche. The Peruvian chef
Gastón Acurio Gastón Acurio Jaramillo (born October 30, 1967) is a Peruvian chef and ambassador of Peruvian cuisine. He owns several restaurants in various countries, and is the author of several books. In Peru, he is the host of a television program and ...
further explains that the dominant position that Lima held throughout four centuries as the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru allowed for popular dishes such as ceviche to be brought to other Spanish colonies in the region and to eventually become a part of local cuisine by incorporating regional flavors and styles. The Peruvian origin of the dish is supported by chefs including the Chilean Christopher Carpentier and the Spaniard Ferran Adrià, who in an interview stated, "Cebiche was born in Peru, and so the authentic and genuine ebicheis Peruvian." Of the different stories that exist about the origin of the ceviche, we only know that it is Peru and Ecuador, the two countries that dispute this denomination, perhaps because they were the ones that the Incas influenced; however, the first recipe of this dish deserves to Manual Atanasio Fuentes in “The Guide of Lima.”


Preparation and variants

Ceviche is marinated in a citrus-based mixture, with lemons and limes most commonly used. In addition to adding flavor, the citric acid causes the proteins in the seafood to become denatured, appearing to be cooked. Acid marinades will not kill bacteria or parasitic worms, unlike the heat of cooking. Traditional-style ceviche was marinated for about three hours. Modern-style ceviche, popularized in the 1970s, usually has a very short marinating period. The appropriate fish can marinate in the time it takes to mix the ingredients, serve, and carry the ceviche to the table. Most Latin American countries have given ceviche its own touch of individuality by adding their own particular garnishes. File:Cebiche-don-lucho.jpg, Peruvian ceviche File:Ceviche ecuador.JPG, Ecuadorian ceviche, made of shrimp, lemon, and tomato sauce File:Lobster and shrimp ceviche.jpg, Mexican ceviche File:Ceviche CR.jpg, Ceviche from Costa Rica


South America

In Peru, ceviche has been declared part of the country's national heritage and has even had a holiday declared in its honor. The classic
Peruvian ceviche Peruvian ceviche, cebiche, sebiche, or sevicheDomènech, Conxita, and Andrés Lema-Hincapié. “Paladares En Perú: Un Imperio Del Ceviche.” In ''Saberes Con Sabor'', 171–193. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Group, 2020. is a traditional di ...
is composed of chunks of raw fish, marinated in freshly squeezed
key lime The Key lime or acid lime (''Citrus'' × ''aurantiifolia'' or ''C. aurantifolia'') is a citrus hybrid ('' C. hystrix'' × '' C. medica'') native to tropical Southeast Asia. It has a spherical fruit, in diameter. The Key lime is usually picked ...
, with sliced onions, chili peppers, salt and pepper. Corvina or cebo (sea bass) was the fish traditionally used. The mixture was traditionally marinated for several hours and served at room temperature, with chunks of corn on the cob and slices of cooked
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the Convolvulus, bindweed or morning glory family (biology), family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a r ...
. Regional or contemporary variations include garlic, fish bone broth, minced Peruvian ''ají limo'', or the Andean chili ''
rocoto ''Capsicum pubescens'' is a plant of the genus ''Capsicum'' (pepper). The species name, ''pubescens'', refers to the hairy leaves of this pepper. The hairiness of the leaves, along with the black seeds, make ''Capsicum pubescens'' distinguishab ...
'', toasted corn or ''cancha'' and ''yuyo'' (
seaweed Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of '' Rhodophyta'' (red), ''Phaeophyta'' (brown) and ''Chlorophyta'' (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as ...
). A specialty of Trujillo is ceviche prepared from shark (''tollo'' or ''tojo''). ''Lenguado'' ( sole) is often used in Lima. The modern version of Peruvian ceviche, similar to the method used in making Japanese sashimi, consists of fish marinated for a few minutes and served promptly. It was developed in the 1970s by Peruvian-Japanese chefs, including Dario Matsufuji and Humberto Sato. Many Peruvian ''cevicherías'' serve a small glass of the marinade, which is called ''leche de tigre'' or ''leche de pantera'', as an appetizer along with the fish. In Ecuador, shrimp ceviche is sometimes made with tomato sauce for a tangy taste. The Manabí style, made with lime juice, salt, and the juice provided by the cooked shrimp itself, and sometimes topped with peanut butter, is very popular. Occasionally, ceviche is made with various types of local shellfish, such as black clam (cooked or raw), oysters (cooked or raw),
spondylus ''Spondylus'' is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family (biology), family Spondylidae.MolluscaBase (2019). MolluscaBase. Spondylus Linnaeus, 1758. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies ...
(raw),
barnacle A barnacle is a type of arthropod constituting the subclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence related to crabs and lobsters. Barnacles are exclusively marine, and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters, typically in eros ...
s (cooked percebes), among others mostly cooked. It is served in a bowl with toasted corn kernels as a side dish; fried green plantain chunks called "patacones", thinly sliced plantain chips called '' chifle'', and popcorn are also typical ceviche side dishes. In some regions, ceviche is served with rice on the side. Well-cooked sea bass (corvina), octopus, and crab ceviches are also common in Ecuador. In all ceviches, onion, lime juice, cilantro and salt are ubiquitous ingredients. In Chile, ceviche is often made with fillets of halibut or Patagonian toothfish and marinated in lime and grapefruit juices; finely minced garlic and red chili peppers and often fresh mint and cilantro are added. On Easter Island, the preferred fish is tuna, marinated in lemon juice and coconut milk.


North and Central America and the Caribbean

In Mexico, the U.S., and some parts of Central America, it is served either in cocktail cups with tostadas or as a tostada topping and taco filling. In Mexico, when served in a cup with tomato sauce, it is called a ceviche cocktail.
Shrimp Shrimp are crustaceans (a form of shellfish) with elongated bodies and a primarily swimming mode of locomotion – most commonly Caridea and Dendrobranchiata of the decapod order, although some crustaceans outside of this order are refer ...
, octopus,
squid True squid are molluscs with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight arms, and two tentacles in the superorder Decapodiformes, though many other molluscs within the broader Neocoleoidea are also called squid despite not strictly fitting t ...
, tuna, and
mackerel Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly from the family Scombridae. They are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment. ...
are also popular bases for Mexican ceviche. The marinade ingredients include salt, lime, onion, chili peppers, avocado, and cilantro (
coriander Coriander (;
). Cut
olive The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'', meaning 'European olive' in Latin, is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as ''Olea europaea'' ...
s and tomatoes are often added to the preparation. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, one popular ceviche recipe is ''ceviche de concha negra'' ("black conch ceviche"), known in Mexico as ''pata de mula'' ("mule's foot"). It is dark, nearly black, with a distinct look and flavor. It is prepared with lime juice, onion,
yerba buena Yerba buena or hierba buena is the Spanish name for a number of aromatic plants, most of which belong to the mint family. ''Yerba buena'' translates as "good herb". The specific plant species regarded as ''yerba buena'' varies from region to regi ...
, salt, pepper, tomato, Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes
picante Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a l ...
(any hot sauce or any kind of hot pepper) as desired. The dish includes marinated fish, lime juice, salt, ground black pepper, finely minced onions, cilantro, and finely minced peppers in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. It is usually served in a cocktail glass with a lettuce leaf and soda crackers on the side, as in Mexico. Popular condiments are tomato ketchup,
mayonnaise Mayonnaise (; ), colloquially referred to as "mayo" , is a thick, cold, and creamy sauce or dressing commonly used on sandwiches, hamburgers, composed salads, and French fries. It also forms the base for various other sauces, such as tartar ...
, and Tabasco sauce. The fish is typically tilapia or corvina, although
mahi-mahi The mahi-mahi () or common dolphinfish (''Coryphaena hippurus'') is a surface-dwelling ray-finned fish found in off-shore temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide. Also widely called dorado (not to be confused with ''Salminus brasil ...
, shark, and marlin are also popular. In Panama, ceviche is prepared with lemon juice, chopped onion, celery, cilantro, assorted peppers, and sea salt. Ceviche made with corvina (white sea bass) is very popular and is served as an appetizer in most local restaurants. It is also commonly prepared with octopus, shrimp, and
squid True squid are molluscs with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight arms, and two tentacles in the superorder Decapodiformes, though many other molluscs within the broader Neocoleoidea are also called squid despite not strictly fitting t ...
or served with small pastry shells called "canastitas." In the Caribbean, ceviche is often made using mahi-mahi prepared with lime juice, salt, onion, green pepper,
habanero The habanero (; ) is a hot variety of chili. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature. The most common color variants are orange and red, but the fruit may also be white, brown, yellow, green, or purple. Typically, a ripe haba ...
, and a touch of
allspice Allspice, also known as Jamaica pepper, myrtle pepper, pimenta, or pimento, is the dried unripe berry (botany), berry of ''Pimenta dioica'', a Canopy (forest), midcanopy tree native to the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central America, ...
. Squid and tuna are also popular. In Puerto Rico and other places in the Caribbean, the dish is prepared with coconut milk. In the Bahamas and south Florida, a
conch Conch () is a common name of a number of different medium-to-large-sized sea snails. Conch shells typically have a high spire and a noticeable siphonal canal (in other words, the shell comes to a noticeable point at both ends). In North Am ...
ceviche known as conch salad is very popular. It is prepared by marinating diced fresh conch in lime, chopped onions, and
bell pepper The bell pepper (also known as paprika, sweet pepper, pepper, or capsicum ) is the fruit of plants in the Grossum Group of the species ''Capsicum annuum''. Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, orange ...
. Diced
pequin pepper Pequin (or piquín) pepper () is a hot chili pepper cultivar commonly used as a spice. Pequin peppers are very hot, often 5–8 times hotter than jalapeños on the Scoville scale (30,000 to 60,000 Units). Flavor is described as citrusy and nutty. ...
or Scotch bonnet pepper is often added for spice. In south Florida, it is common to encounter a variation to which tomato juice has been added.


Health risks

Bad sanitary conditions in its preparation may lead to illness. Aside from contaminants, raw seafood can also be the vector for various pathogens, viral and bacterial, as well as larger parasitic creatures. According to the United States Food and Drug Administration and studies since 2009, specific microbial hazards in ceviche include '' Anisakis simplex'', ''
Diphyllobothrium ''Diphyllobothrium'' is a genus of tapeworms which can cause diphyllobothriasis in humans through consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The principal species causing diphyllobothriasis is ''D. latum'', known as the broad or fish tapeworm, or b ...
'' spp., ''Pseudoterranova decipiens'' and ''Pseudoterranova cattani'', and '' Vibrio parahaemolyticus''. Anisakiasis is a zoonotic disease caused by the ingestion of larval nematodes in raw seafood dishes such as ceviche. The Latin American
cholera Cholera is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea that lasts a few days. Vomiting and ...
outbreaks in the 1990s may have been attributed to the consumption of raw cholera-infested seafood that was eaten as ceviche. The American Dietetic Association urges women to avoid ceviche during pregnancy due to the health risks it introduces if not prepared properly.


See also

* marinated in vinegar, garlic and parsley eaten in Spain * , cooked or raw fish or meats in an acidic marinade * , sometimes referred to as "Philippine ceviche" * *


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * {{cite book , title=The Great Ceviche Book , first=Douglas , last=Rodriguez , isbn=978-1-58008-107-8 , publisher=Ten Speed Press , date=2010-06-08 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJcNQZi7_hQC&q=cebiche+origin+peru&pg=PA3 , page=3 , ref=great_ceviche Bahamian cuisine Belizean cuisine Chilean cuisine Citrus dishes Colombian cuisine Costa Rican cuisine Ecuadorian cuisine Fish dishes Florida cuisine Guatemalan cuisine Mexican cuisine National dishes Nicaraguan cuisine Panamanian cuisine Peruvian cuisine Pascuense cuisine Puerto Rican cuisine Salvadoran cuisine Uncooked fish dishes Potentially dangerous food