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Boutros Boutros-Ghali (; ar, بطرس بطرس غالي, Buṭrus Buṭrus Ghālī; 14 November 1922 – 16 February 2016) was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who served as the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1992 to 1996. Prior to his appointment as secretary-general, Boutros-Ghali was the acting Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt between 1977 and 1979. He oversaw the United Nations over a period coinciding with several world crises, including the
breakup of Yugoslavia The breakup of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts during the early 1990s. After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yu ...
and the Rwandan genocide. Born to a Coptic Christian family in Cairo, Boutros-Ghali was an academic by training and taught international law and international relations at Cairo University from 1949 to 1979. His political career began during the presidency of Anwar Sadat, who appointed him acting foreign minister in 1977. In that capacity, he helped negotiate the
Camp David Accords The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the country retrea ...
and the Egypt–Israel peace treaty between Sadat and Israeli prime minister
Menachem Begin Menachem Begin ( ''Menaḥem Begin'' (); pl, Menachem Begin (Polish documents, 1931–1937); ''Menakhem Volfovich Begin''; 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) was an Israeli politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of Israel. B ...
. He was acting foreign minister until early 1991, when he served as deputy foreign minister for a few months. Boutros-Ghali was elected secretary-general by the United Nations General Assembly in 1991 and began his term in 1992, succeeding Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. His tenure was marked by controversy and crises, which included the Somali Civil War, the Rwandan Civil War, the continuing Angolan Civil War and the Yugoslav Wars. He received criticism over UN inaction in Angola and during the genocide in Rwanda, and the perceived ineffectiveness of the UN peacekeeping operation in Bosnia led to a NATO intervention. In 1996, Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for a second term as secretary-general but the United States, long dissatisfied with his leadership, denied his bid by exercising its UN Security Council veto. After leaving the UN, Boutros-Ghali served as the first
Secretary-General of La Francophonie The (OIF; sometimes shortened to the Francophonie, french: La Francophonie , but also called International Organisation of in English-language context) is an international organization representing countries and regions where French langua ...
from 1997 to 2002. He then became chairman of the South Centre, an intergovernmental think tank for developing countries. He died in 2016 in Cairo at the age of 93.


Early life and education

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Orthodox Christian family. His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali '' Bey'' then '' Pasha'' (also his namesake), who was Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 until he was assassinated in 1910. His mother, Safela Mikhail Sharubim, was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim (1861–1920), a prominent public servant and historian. The young boy was brought up by a Slovenian nanny, one of the so-called '; he was closer to Milena, "his invaluable friend and confidant", than to his own mother. Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946. He received a PhD in international law from the Faculty of Law of Paris ( University of Paris) and diploma in international relations from
Sciences Po , motto_lang = fr , mottoeng = Roots of the Future , type = Public university, Public research university''Grande école'' , established = , founder = Émile Boutmy , a ...
in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University. He became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. He was a Fulbright Research Scholar at Columbia University from 1954 to 1955, Director of the Centre of Research at The Hague Academy of International Law from 1963 to 1964, and Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Law of Paris from 1967 to 1968. In 1986 he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University, Sweden. He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, a branch of Kyunghee University Seoul.


Political career

Boutros-Ghali's political career developed during the presidency of Anwar Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the
Arab Socialist Union The Arab Socialist Union may refer to: *Arab Socialist Union (Egypt), active 1962–78 *Arab Socialist Union (Iraq), active 1964–68 *Libyan Arab Socialist Union, active 1971−77 *Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria), founded in 1973 *Democratic Ar ...
from 1974 to 1977. He served as Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months before moving to the UN. As Minister of State, he played a part in the peace agreements between President Sadat and Israeli prime minister
Menachem Begin Menachem Begin ( ''Menaḥem Begin'' (); pl, Menachem Begin (Polish documents, 1931–1937); ''Menakhem Volfovich Begin''; 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) was an Israeli politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of Israel. B ...
. According to investigative journalist Linda Melvern, Boutros-Ghali approved a secret $26 million arms sale to the government of Rwanda in 1990 when he was foreign minister, the weapons stockpiled by the Hutu regime as part of the fairly public, long-term preparations for the subsequent genocide. He was serving as UN secretary-general when the killings occurred four years later.


United Nations Secretary-General


1991 selection

Boutros-Ghali ran for Secretary-General of the United Nations in the 1991 selection. The top post in the UN was opening up as Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru reached the end of his second term, and Africa was next in the rotation. Boutros-Ghali tied Bernard Chidzero of Zimbabwe in the first two rounds of polling, edged ahead by one vote in round 3, and fell behind by one vote in round 4. After several countries withdrew their support for Chidzero, fed by fears that the United States was trying to eliminate both of the leading candidates, Boutros-Ghali won a clear victory in round 5.


Tenure (1992–1996)

Boutros-Ghali's term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted ''
An Agenda for Peace ''An Agenda for Peace: Preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peace-keeping'', more commonly known simply as ''An Agenda for Peace'', is a report written for the United Nations by Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1992. In it, Boutros-Ghali ...
'', a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict. He set three goals: for the UN to be more active in promoting democracy, for the UN to conduct preventative diplomacy to avert crises, and to expand the UN's role as peacekeeper. Although the goals were consistent with those of US president
George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker BushSince around 2000, he has been usually called George H. W. Bush, Bush Senior, Bush 41 or Bush the Elder to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd president from 2001 to 2009; pr ...
, he nevertheless repeatedly clashed with the United States, especially with his efforts to involve the UN more deeply in the civil wars in Somalia (1992) and in Rwanda (1994). The United States refused to send peace enforcement units under UN leadership. Boutros-Ghali was criticised for the UN's failure to act during the
1994 Rwandan genocide The Rwandan genocide occurred between 7 April and 15 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were killed by armed Hutu ...
, during which over a half million people were killed. Boutros-Ghali also appeared unable to muster support in the UN for intervention in the continuing Angolan Civil War. One of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. The UN peacekeeping force was ineffective in Bosnia and Herzegovina, forcing the intervention by NATO in December 1995. His reputation became entangled in the larger controversies over the effectiveness of the UN and the role of the United States in the UN. The US journalist Mark Bowden argues that he was responsible for an escalation of the Somalia crisis by undertaking a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his Habar Gidir clan, favouring their rivals, the Darod, the clan of the former dictator
Siad Barre Mohamed Siad Barre ( so, Maxamed Siyaad Barre, Osmanya script: ; ar, محمد سياد بري; c. 1910 – 2 January 1995) was a Somali head of state and general who served as the 3rd president of the Somali Democratic Republic from 1969 to 199 ...
. It was believed that he demanded the 12 July 1993 US helicopter attack on a meeting of Habar Gidir clan leaders, who were meeting to discuss a peace initiative put forward by the leader of the UN Mission in Mogadishu, retired US Admiral Jonathan Howe. Bowden suggests that most of the clan elders were eager to arrange peace and rein in the subversive activities of their clan leader Aidid. Still, after this attack on a peaceful meeting, the clan was resolved to fight the Americans and the UN, leading to the Battle of Mogadishu on 3–4 October 1993.


Second term vetoed

Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for the customary second term in 1996, despite efforts by the United States to unseat him. US ambassador Madeleine Albright asked Boutros-Ghali to resign and offered to establish a foundation for him to run, an offer that other Western diplomats called "ludicrous". American diplomatic pressure also had no effect, as other members of the Security Council remained unwavering in their support for Boutros-Ghali. He won 14 of the 15 votes in the Security Council, but the sole opposing vote was a US veto. After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, France offered a compromise in which Boutros-Ghali would be appointed to a short term of two years, but the United States rejected the French offer. Finally, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy, becoming the second Secretary-General ever to be denied re-election by a veto, with Kurt Waldheim being the first.


Later life

From 1997 to 2002, Boutros-Ghali was
Secretary-General of La Francophonie The (OIF; sometimes shortened to the Francophonie, french: La Francophonie , but also called International Organisation of in English-language context) is an international organization representing countries and regions where French langua ...
, an organisation of French-speaking nations. From 2002 to 2005, he served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre, an intergovernmental research organisation of developing countries. Boutros-Ghali played a "significant role" in creating Egypt's National Council for Human Rights and served as its president until 2012. Boutros-Ghali supported the
Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly Campaign or The Campaign may refer to: Types of campaigns * Campaign, in agriculture, the period during which sugar beets are harvested and processed *Advertising campaign, a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme *Bli ...
and was one of the initial signatories of the Campaign's appeal in 2007. In a message to the Campaign, he stressed the necessity to establish democratic participation of citizens at the global level. From 2009 to 2015 he also participated as a jury member for the Conflict Prevention Prize, awarded every year by the
Fondation Chirac The Fondation Chirac was launched by former French President Jacques Chirac, after having served two terms in office between 1995 and 2007. Since 2008, this foundation strives for peace through five advocacy programmes: * conflict prevention * ...
.


Death

Boutros-Ghali died aged 93 in a Cairo hospital after being admitted for a
broken pelvis A pelvic fracture is a break of the bony structure of the pelvis. This includes any break of the sacrum, hip bones (ischium, pubis, ilium), or tailbone. Symptoms include pain, particularly with movement. Complications may include internal ble ...
or leg on 16 February 2016. He reportedly had fallen down the stairs at his home in Cairo. A military funeral was held for him with prayers led by
Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria Pope Tawadros II or Theodore II ( cop, Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ Ⲁⲃⲃⲁ Ⲑⲉⲟ́ⲇⲱⲣⲟⲥ ⲡⲓⲙⲁϩ ⲃ̅', translit=Papa Abba Theódōros II ; ar, البابا تواضروس الثاني, translit=al-Bābā Tawāḍurūs al-Th ānī, ...
. He is buried at Petrine Church in
Abbassia Abbassia ( ar, العباسية  ) is a neighbourhood in Cairo, Egypt. The Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo is located in Abbassia. The medical faculty of Ain Shams University and its affiliate hospital units are located in Ab ...
, Cairo.


Personal life

Boutros-Ghali's wife, Leia Maria Nadler, was raised in an
Egyptian Jewish Egyptian Jews constitute both one of the oldest and youngest Jewish communities in the world. The historic core of the Jewish community in Egypt consisted mainly of Egyptian Arabic speaking Rabbanites and Karaites. Though Egypt had its own com ...
family in Alexandria and converted to Catholicism as a young woman.


Honorary degrees

He received honorary degrees from
Sciences Po , motto_lang = fr , mottoeng = Roots of the Future , type = Public university, Public research university''Grande école'' , established = , founder = Émile Boutmy , a ...
, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Catholic University of Leuven University of Leuven or University of Louvain (french: Université de Louvain, link=no; nl, Universiteit Leuven, link=no) may refer to: * Old University of Leuven (1425–1797) * State University of Leuven (1817–1835) * Catholic University of ...
, , Université de Moncton, Carleton University,
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi The Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC) is a branch of the Université du Québec network founded in 1969 and based in the Chicoutimi borough of Saguenay, Quebec, Canada. UQAC has secondary study centres in La Malbaie, Saint-Félicien ...
,
Charles III University of Madrid University Charles III of Madrid ( es, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid) (UC3M) is a public university in the Community of Madrid, Spain. Established in 1989, UC3M is an institution with a distinctly international profile. It offers a broad rang ...
, University of Bucharest, Baku State University, Yerevan State University, University of Haifa, University of Vienna, University of Melbourne,
Seoul National University Seoul National University (SNU; ) is a national public research university located in Seoul, South Korea. Founded in 1946, Seoul National University is largely considered the most prestigious university in South Korea; it is one of the three "S ...
, Waseda University, University of Bordeaux, and Uppsala University.


Awards and recognition

* The World Affairs Council Christian A. Herter memorial award, Boston (March 1993) * The Arthur A. Houghton Jr. Star Crystal Award for Excellence de l'Institut afro- américain, New York (November 1993) * Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques * Honorary membership of the Order of Canada * Honorary membership of the
Russian Academy of Natural Sciences The Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (Russian: Российская академия естественных наук) is a Russian non-governmental organization founded on August 31 1990 in Moscow in the former Soviet Union, following a dec ...
, Moscow (April 1994) * Honorary foreign membership of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow (April 1994) * Honorary foreign membership of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk (April 1994) * Fellow of Berkeley College, Yale University (March 1995) * The recipient of the Onassis Award for International Understanding and Social Achievement (July 1995)


Honours


National honours


Foreign honours


Published works

As Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali wrote ''An Agenda for Peace''. He also published other memoirs:


In English

* ''The Arab League, 1945–1955: Ten Years of Struggle'', ed. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York, 1954 * ''New Dimensions of Arms Regulations and Disarmament in the Post Cold War'', ed. United Nations, New York, 1992 * ''An Agenda for Development'', ed. United Nations, New York, 1995 * ''Confronting New Challenges'', ed. United Nations, New York, 1995 * ''Fifty Years of the United Nations'', ed. William Morrow, New York, 1995 * ''The 50th Anniversary: Annual Report on the Work of the Organization'', ed. United Nations, New York, 1996 * ''An Agenda for Democratization'', ed. United Nations, New York, 1997 * ''Egypt's Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat's Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East'', ed. Random House, New York, 1998 * ''Essays on Leadership'' (with
George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker BushSince around 2000, he has been usually called George H. W. Bush, Bush Senior, Bush 41 or Bush the Elder to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd president from 2001 to 2009; pr ...
, Jimmy Carter,
Mikhail Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (2 March 1931 – 30 August 2022) was a Soviet politician who served as the 8th and final leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to dissolution of the Soviet Union, the country's dissolution in 1991. He served a ...
, and
Desmond Tutu Desmond Mpilo Tutu (7 October 193126 December 2021) was a South African Anglican bishop and theologian, known for his work as an anti-apartheid and human rights activist. He was Bishop of Johannesburg from 1985 to 1986 and then Archbishop ...
), ed. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Washington, 1998 * ''Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga'', ed. I. B. Tauris, New York, 1999 * ''The Papers of United Nations Secretary'' (with Charles Hill), ed. Yale University Press, New York, 2003 * ''The Arab League, 1945–1955: International Conciliation'', ed. Literary Licensing Publisher, London, 2013


In French

* ''Contribution à l'étude des ententes régionales'', ed. Pedone, Paris, 1949 * ''Cours de Diplomatie et de Droit Diplomatique et consulaire'', ed. Librairie Anglo-égyptienne, Cairo, 1951 * ''Le problème du canal de Suez'', ed. Société égyptienne du droit international, Cairo, 1957 * ''Le principe d'égalité des États et des organisations internationales'', ed. Académie de droit international, Leiden, 1961 * ''Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances'', ed. Pedone, Paris, 1963 * ''Le Mouvement afro-asiatique'', ed. Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1969 * ''L'organisation de l'Unité africaine'', ed. Armand Colin, Paris, 1969 * ''Les difficultés institutionnelles du panafricanisme'', ed. Institut Universitaire des Hautes études Internationales, Geneva, 1971 * ''Les conflits des frontières en Afrique'', ed. Techniques et Économiques, Paris, 1972 * ''Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances'', ed. Pedone, Paris, 1991 * ''L'interaction démocratie et développement'' ds. ed. Unesco, Paris, 2002 * ''Démocratiser la mondialisation'', ed. Rocher, Paris, 2002 * ''Émanciper la Francophonie'', ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 * ''60 Ans de conflit israélo-arabe : Témoignages pour l'Histoire'' (with
Shimon Peres Shimon Peres (; he, שמעון פרס ; born Szymon Perski; 2 August 1923 – 28 September 2016) was an Israeli politician who served as the eighth prime minister of Israel from 1984 to 1986 and from 1995 to 1996 and as the ninth president of ...
), ed. Complexes, Paris, 2006


See also

* List of Copts


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * *


Further reading

* * *


External links

*
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
papers at the United Nations Archives * , - , - , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 1922 births 2016 deaths 20th-century Egyptian diplomats 21st-century Egyptian diplomats Cairo University alumni Coptic politicians Academic staff of Cairo University Members of the Institut de Droit International Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Deputy Prime Ministers of Egypt Foreign ministers of Egypt The Hague Academy of International Law people Honorary Companions of the Order of Canada Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg People of the Rwandan genocide Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania Columbia University faculty Sciences Po alumni Secretaries-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Secretaries-General of the United Nations Accidental deaths from falls Egyptian officials of the United Nations Boutros Ghali family Fulbright alumni Accidental deaths in Egypt