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Asha (; also arta ; ae, 𐬀𐬴𐬀, translit=aṣ̌a/arta) is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'... For other connotations, see meaning below. It is of cardinal importance. to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. In the moral sphere, ''aṣ̌a/arta'' represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism". qtd. in
  . The opposite of Avestan ''aṣ̌a'' is ''druj'', "deceit, falsehood".

Its Old Persian equivalent is ''arta-''. In Middle Iranian languages the term appears as ''ard-''.

The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis or "genius". of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the Younger Avesta, this figure is more commonly referred to as Asha Vahishta (''Aṣ̌a Vahišta'', ''Arta Vahišta''), "Best Truth". The Middle Persian descendant is ''Ashawahist'' or ''Ardwahisht''; New Persian ''Ardibehesht'' or ''Ordibehesht''. In the Gathas— the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism, thought to have been composed by Zoroaster —it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta, only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of ''aṣ̌a/arta''.

Etymology

Avestan ' and its Vedic equivalent '' '' both derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian ''*ṛtá-'' "truth", which in turn continues Proto-Indo-European ''*'' "properly joined, right, true", from the root ''*''.
The word is attested in Old Persian as '.

It is unclear whether the Avestan variation between ''aṣ̌a'' and ''arta'' is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggested ''š'' was only a convenient way of writing ''rt'' and should not be considered phonetically relevant.. According to Gray, ''ṣ̌'' is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a voiceless ''r''.. Miller suggested that ''rt'' was restored when a scribe was aware of the morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the ''–ta'' suffix)..

Avestan ''druj'', like its Vedic Sanskrit cousin ''druh'', appears to derive from the PIE root ''*'', also continued in Persian دروغ / ''d ūġ'' "lie", German ''Trug'' "fraud, deception". Old Norse '' draugr'' and Middle Irish ''airddrach'' mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate ''druh'' means "affliction, afflicting demon".
In Avestan, '' druj-'' has a secondary derivation, the adjective ''drəguuaṇt-'' (Young Avestan '' druuaṇt-''), "partisan of deception, deceiver" for which the superlative ''draojišta-'' and perhaps the comparative ''draoj(ii)ah-'' are attested (Kellens, 2010, pp. 69 ff.).

Meaning

''Aṣ̌a'' "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue" but may be summarized as follows:

It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality that embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it..
"This cosmic ..force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order.".

The correspondence between 'truth', reality and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed from Heraclitus' conception of Logos..

As "truth"

Both Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective antonyms. The opposite of Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta'' is ''druj-'', "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ' are ' and ''druh'', likewise "lie".

That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term as attested in Greek myth of: ''Isis and Osiris'' 47, Plutarch calls the divinity Αλήθεια ''Aletheia'', "Truth.".

As "existence"

The adjective corresponding to the noun ''aṣ̌a/arta'', "truth", is Avestan ''haithya-'' (''haiθiia-''), "true", the opposite of which is also ''druj-''. Avestan ''haithya-'' derives from Indo-Iranian ''*sātya'' that in turn derives from Indo-European ''*h₁s-ṇt-'' "being, existing". The Sanskrit cognate '' sátya-'' means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression ''haiθīm var''ə''z'', "to make true" as in "to bring to realization."

Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the ''aṣ̌a/arta'': from (root) ''ŗ'' with a substantivizing ''-ta'' suffix. The root ''ŗ'' corresponds to Old Avestan ''ar''ə''ta-'' and Younger Avestan ə''r''ə''ta-'' "established", hence ''aṣ̌a/arta'' "that which is established."

The synonymy of ''aṣ̌a'' and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the creator (of existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). Also, because ''aṣ̌a'' is everything that ''druj-'' is not (or vice versa), since ''aṣ̌a'' is, ''druj-'' is not.

This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, such as in the first ''Yasht'', dedicated to Ahura Mazda, in which the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( ''Yasht'' 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of ''Gandar''ə''βa'', the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the ''druj-'' that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aṣ̌a" (''Yasht'' 19.41)

In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts, Sraosha in good words and Aṣ̌a in good deeds. (''Denkard'' 3.13-14). Aṣ̌a is thus "represented as active and effective.".

As "right working"

Subject to context, ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is also frequently translated as "right working" or " hat which isright". The word then (''cf.'' Bartholomae's, coll. 229-259. and Geldner's. translations as German language "''Recht''") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order).

These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, such as "the inexorable law of righteousness,". or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order.".

As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars (''Yasna'' 44.3), and it is through ''aṣ̌a'' that plants grow (''Yasna'' 48.6).

"Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European ''*ár-'' "to (properly) join together" and with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", ''ar''ə''ta-'', also means "proper". The antonymic ''anar''ə''ta-'' (or ''anar''ə''θa-'') means "improper''. In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula ''*sātyas mantras'' (''Yasna'' 31.6: ''haiθīm mathrem'') "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization)'".

It perhaps has also suggestions of harmoniousness or cooperativeness

In comparison to Vedic usage

The kinship. between Old Iranian ''aṣ̌a-/arta-'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both the Avesta and in the RigVeda. cit.
  . For instance, the ''*ŗtásya'' path, "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources: Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3. Similarly "source of truth," Avestan ''aṣ̌a khá'' and Vedic ' (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5)

The adjective corresponding to Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is ''haiθiia-'' "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedic ''ŗtá-'' "truth" is ''sátya-'' "true". The opposite of both ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' and ''haithya-'' is ''druj-'' "lie" or "false". In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of both ''ŗtá-'' and ''sátya-'' is ''druj-'' and ''ánŗta-'', also "lie" or "false".

However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition, ''ŗtá-'' disappears in post-Vedic literature and is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand, ''sátya-'' and ''ánrta-'' both survive in classical Sanskrit.

The main theme of the Rig Veda, "the truth and the gods", is not evident in the Gathas.. Thematic parallels between ''aṣ̌a/arta'' and ''ŗtá-'', however, exist such as in ''Yasht'' 10, the Avestan hymn to Mithra. There, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and the preserver of covenant, is the protector of ''aṣ̌a/arta''.. RigVedic Mitra is likewise preserver of ''ŗtá-''.

Fire as the agent of Truth

Asha Vahishta is closely associated with fire. Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all the ''other'' Amesha Spentas, giving them warmth and the spark of life.".
In ''Yasht'' 17.20, Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Asha Vahishta. In ''Vendidad'' 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt."

This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in the ''Yasna Haptanghaiti''. In ''Yasna'' 43–44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aṣ̌a. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" (''Yasna'' 34.4). An individual who has passed the fiery test (''garmo-varah'', ordeal by heat), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (''Yasna'' 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all.". According to the post-Sassanid '' Dadestan i denig'' (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive the molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aṣ̌a's role in personal and final judgement, see ''aṣ̌a'' in eschatology, below.

Fire is moreover the "auxiliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time." In ''Yasna'' 31.19, "the man who thinks of ''aṣ̌a'', ..who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly, oes sowith the aid of brilliant fire". In ''Yasna'' 34-44 devotees "ardently desire azda'smighty fire, through aṣ̌a." In ''Yasna'' 43–44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to oroasterthrough the splendour of azda'sfire, possessing the strength of (through) aṣ̌a and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength through ''aṣ̌a''" is repeated again in ''Yasna'' 43.4. In ''Yasna'' 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention to ''aṣ̌a''. In ''Yasna'' 37.1, in a list of what are otherwise all physical creations, ''aṣ̌a'' takes the place of fire.

Asha Vahishta's association with ''atar'' is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix, ''aṣ̌a/arta'' is the origin of fire, Avestan ''atar'', which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is that ''aṣ̌a/arta'' "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being."

In the liturgy Asha Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. (''Yasna'' l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc.). In one passage, fire is a protector of ''aṣ̌a'': "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (''Yasht'' 13.77)

In later Zoroastrian tradition, Asha Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth..

In eschatology and soteriology

In addition to the role of fire as the agent of Truth, fire, among its various other manifestations, is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aṣ̌a' (''Y'' 31.3)."

In the Avesta, the "radiant quarters" of ''aṣ̌a'' is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf. ''Vendidad'' 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" ('' aṣ̌avan'').. The key to this doctrine is ''Yasna'' 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters of ''Aṣ̌a'' in which dwell the souls of the dead, the Fravašis of the ''aṣ̌avan''s; the best existence (=Paradise) of the ''aṣ̌avan''s we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts."

'Aṣ̌a' derives from the same Proto-Indo-European root as 'Airyaman', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Asha Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common noun ''airyaman'' is an epithet of the '' saoshyans'', the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is '''astvat''ә''r''ә''ta''', which likewise has ''arta'' as an element of the name. These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aṣ̌a" (''Yasna'' 48.12). Both Airyaman and Asha Vahishta (as also Atar) are closely associated with Sraosha " oice ofConscience" and guardian of the Chinvat bridge across which souls must pass.

According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aṣ̌a and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, the daeva of greed (''Zatspram'' 34.38-39).

The third ''Yasht'', which is nominally addressed to Asha Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to the praise of the ''airyaman ishya'' (''airy''ә''mā īšyo'', "Longed-for ''airyaman''"), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers. In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as the ''Ashem Vohu'', is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. All four prayers (the first is the Ahuna Vairya, the third is the Yenghe Hatam) have judgement and/or salvation as a theme, and all four call on the Truth.

It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" (''Bundahishn'' 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain of Xshathra airya the Amesha Spenta of " esirableDominion", with whom Aṣ̌a is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth.".

In ''Denkard'' 8.37.13, Asha Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as the healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of the Zoroastrian calendar, Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aṣ̌a. (''Siroza'' 1.3 and 2.3)

''Aogemadaecha'' 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on the journey from which they will not return.

Aṣ̌a's role is not limited to judgement: In ''Bundahishn'' 26.35, Aṣ̌a prevents daevas from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to the House of Lies. Here, Aṣ̌a occupies the position that other texts assign to Mithra, who is traditionally identified with fairness.

For the relationship between Aṣ̌a, eschatology and Nowruz, see in the Zoroastrian calendar, below.

Although there are numerous eschatological parallels between Aṣ̌a and Aši "recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together (''Yasna'' 51.10), the two are not etymologically related. The feminine abstract noun ''aši/arti'' derives from ''ar-'', "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent.

In relationship to the other Amesha Spentas

In Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology, which—though alluded to in the Gathas—is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g. ''Bundahishn'' 3.12), ''aṣ̌a'' is the second (cf. ''Yasna'' 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, the Amesha Spentas that all subsequent creation was accomplished.

In addition to Asha Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world..

Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Asha Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aṣ̌a appears 157 times. Of the other concepts, only ''Vohu Manah'' "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether.

Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into three dyads." In this arrangement, Aṣ̌a is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in the Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition. In ''Bundahishn'' 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aṣ̌a stands at the right.

In divine epithets

Of Ahura Mazda

Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked. In the numbered list of ''Yasht'' 1.7, 'Asha Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name.. A later verse, ''Yasht'' 1.12, includes 'Aṣ̌avan'. "Possessing Truth" and 'Aṣ̌avastəma' "Most Righteous".. In ''Yasna'' 40.3, Ahura Mazda is ''aṣ̌aŋāč'' "having ''aṣ̌a'' following".

Of other divinities

One of Haoma's stock epithets is ''aṣ̌avazah-'' "furthering ''aṣ̌a''" (''Yasht'' 20.3; ''Yasna'' 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al.). Atar "possesses strength through ''aṣ̌a''" (''aṣ̌a-ahojah'', Yasna 43.4).

In the Zoroastrian calendar

In the Zoroastrian calendar, the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named after ''aṣ̌a'' and Asha Vahishta (calledارديبهشت ''Ordibehesht'' in Modern Persian both in Iranian Calendar and Yazdgerdi calendar).

A special service to ''aṣ̌a'' and Aṣ̌a, known as the ' ''Jashan'' of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In the ''Fasli'' and ''Bastani'' variants of the Zoroastrian calendar, this falls on April 22.

Rapithwin, one of the five ''gah''s (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aṣ̌a. (''Bundahishn'' 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aṣ̌a. Noon is considered to be the "perfect" time, at which instant the world was created and at which instant time will stop on the day of the final renovation of the world.

In the winter months, the ''daev''ic time of year, Rapithwin is known as the ''Second Havan'' (the first Havan being from dawn to noon), and with the first day of spring, March 21, Rapithwin symbolically returns. This day, March 21, is Nowruz

Nowruz, the holiest of all Zoroastrian festivals is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. It follows immediately after Pateti, the day of introspection and the Zoroastrian equivalent of All-Souls Day. Nowruz, Zoroastrianism's New Year's Day, is celebrated on the first day of spring, traditionally understood to be the day of rebirth, and literally translated means "New Day". The first month of the year of the Zoroastrian calendar is Farvadin, which is dedicated to and named after the Fravašis, the ancestral higher spirits.

"The underlying idea of the dedication" of the second month of the year to Asha Vahishta "may be revivification of the earth after the death of winter.".

Iconography

On Kushan coins, Asha Vahishta "appears as Aṣ̌aeixšo, with a diadem and nimbus, like Mithra in the same series."

In proper names

"''Arta-'' (Mid. Iranian ''ard-''), representing either the Av. divinity Aṣ̌a or the principle ''aṣ̌a'', occurs frequently as an element in Iranian personal names."

Hellenized/Latinized names include:
* Artabanos (Greek, Latin Artabanus, Modern Persian اردوان ''Ardavān''), from *Artabānu "glory of ''arta''".
* Artabazanes (Latin) a variant of either Artabazus or Artabrzana
* Artabazus, Artabazos (Greek, Latin Artavasdes), attested as Avestan Ashavazdah, perhaps meaning "powerful/persevering through ''arta''"
* Artabrzana (Greek), from *Artabrzana "exalting ''arta''"
* Artaphrenes (Greek), either from Artamainyu "spirit of ''arta''" (''phrene'': Greek 'spirit') or a corruption of Artafarnah " ivineGlory of ''arta''"
* Artasyras (Greek), from *Artasura, "powerful through ''arta''"
* Artaxata, Artaxiasata (Greek, Armenian Artashat), meaning "joy of ''arta''".
* Artaxias (Greek, Armenian Artashes), from an Aramaic form of Artaxṣ̌acā (Artaxerxes, see below).
* Artaxerxes (Latin, variant Artoxerxes, Greek Artaxesses, Hebrew/Aramaic ''Artaxṣ̌ast'' or ''Artaxṣ̌asta''), a compound of Arta and Xerxes, the latter not being a part of the original Old Persian Artaxṣ̌acā, "whose reign is through ''arta''" or "dominion of ''arta''."
* Artazostre (Greek), from *Artazaushri "who is in favor of ''arta''" or "who takes delight in ''arta''"
* Artembares (Greek), from *Artempara "who encourages ''arta''" or "who furthers ''arta''."

Other names include:
* Artavardiya (Old Persian) and Irdumardiya (Elamite), meaning "doer of Justice"
* Arda Viraz, the "righteous Viraz" (having an eschatological connotation)
* Ardeshir, Middle Persian form of Old Persian Artaxṣ̌acā (i.e. Artaxerxes), literally "whose reign is through ''arta''"; actually means "Holy Kingship". Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary

Middle Iranian ''ard-'' is also suggested to be the root of names of the current day Iranian cities of Ardabil, Ardekan, Ardehal and Ardestan.

See also

*Truth
*Ma'at

Notes

References

Bibliography

p. 115.
* (fasc., 1979, Berlin: de Gruyter)
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Further reading

* The story of

', as adapted from several tales in Firdausi's Shahnameh.
*
* {{Citation, last=Schmidt, first=Hans-Peter, title=Old and new perspectives in the study of the Gathas of Zarathustra, journal=Indo-Iranian Journal, date=April 1979, volume=21, issue=2, doi=10.1007/BF02350330, page=83, postscript=.

Yazatas
Ancient Iranian religion
Value (ethics)
Zoroastrian calendar
Avestan language
Given names