Environmental issue Environmental issues are effects of human activity on the biophysical environment, most often of which are harmful effects that cause environmental degradation. Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment on t ...

s in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of

forest A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...

s and degradation of

mangrove A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in severa ...

coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. C ...

s and

soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty. Common types of dirt include: * Debri ...

Air pollution Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are many different typ ...

and

water pollution Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. ...

are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts. Overfishing and insufficient

waste management Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitorin ...

, especially in

rural area In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas and areas with forestry typically are descr ...

s, leads to environmental pollution. Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as

extreme weather events Extreme weather or extreme climate events includes unexpected, unusual, severe weather, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Often, extreme events are b ...

and

sea level rise Globally, sea levels are rising due to human-caused climate change. Between 1901 and 2018, the globally averaged sea level rose by , or 1–2 mm per year on average.IPCC, 2019Summary for Policymakers InIPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cry ...

. Industrialization and population growth are major drivers of these environmental issues. A lack of public awareness and governmental guidelines intensify the problems.

Background

These environmental problems have escalated because of a high population growth and the increasing industrialization in Sri Lanka since the 1980s. The industrialization led to an increase in

automobile A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people instead of goods. The year 1886 is regarde ...

use and energy consumption. The energy demand used to be almost covert by

hydro power plant Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies one sixth of the world's electricity, almost 4500 TWh in 2020, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and ...

s in 1988 (90%). The increased demands led to the construction of oil and coal fired

thermal power plants A thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a steam ...

which emit more greenhouse gases than renewable energy technologies like hydro power plants. A lack of public awareness and participation in government policies and

environmental standard Environmental standards are administrative regulations or civil law rules implemented for the treatment and maintenance of the environment. Environmental standards are typically set by government and can include prohibition of specific activities, ...

s has amplified the problems. However, Sri Lanka's government has undertaken several efforts to encounter environmental issues.

Major environmental issues

Deforestation

Sri Lanka's central and southern parts are home to

montane forests Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...

, sub-montane forests and to lowland rainforests. In contrast, sparse forests, mangroves, riverine dry forests and monsoon forests are located in the dry zone. These forest covers in Sri Lanka have been greatly reduced by legal and illegal forest clearing. Sri Lanka-Tea plantation-06

Due to deforestation in Sri Lanka the size of land covered by

natural forest An old-growth forestalso termed primary forest, virgin forest, late seral forest, primeval forest, or first-growth forestis a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance, and thereby exhibits unique ecological featur ...

s decreased from 80% in 1820 to 43% in 1948. This was partly caused by

British colonialism The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts est ...

from 1801 to 1948 which increased the amount of

tea Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of ''Camellia sinensis'', an evergreen shrub native to East Asia which probably originated in the borderlands of southwestern China and north ...

coffee Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world. Seeds of ...

and

rubber plantations ''Hevea brasiliensis'', the Pará rubber tree, ''sharinga'' tree, seringueira, or most commonly, rubber tree or rubber plant, is a flowering plant belonging to the spurge family Euphorbiaceae originally native to the Amazon basin, but is now pan ...

. The natural forest cover further decreased to 23% in 2000. In 2010, 29% of Sri Lanka's area was covered by forests (this number includes forest plantations). Drivers of recent

forest degradation Forest degradation is a process in which the biological wealth of a forest area is permanently diminished by some factor or by a combination of factors. "This does not involve a reduction of the forest area, but rather a quality decrease in its c ...

are an increase in population, road construction, timber production, agricultural development and forest cleaning by private businessmen. Even though there are conservation areas, the management is partly insufficient. The extensive deforestation leads to a rise of the average surface temperature. Deforestation is also responsible for an increase in greenhouse gas emissions because trees remove CO₂ from the air. By

clear cutting Clearcutting, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, it is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ...

areas the CO₂ returns to the air and thereby increases the atmospheric carbon concentration. The government of Sri Lanka has adopted the target to increase the size of land covered by forests to 32% by 2030. In order to achieve this, the government intends to

reforest Reforestation (occasionally, reafforestation) is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation, but also after clearcutting. Management A debate ...

degraded forests, to increase

urban forests Urban means "related to a city". In that sense, the term may refer to: * Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas * Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities Urban may also refer to: General * Urban (name), a list of people ...

, and to improve the forest plantations. Sri Lanka had a 2018

Forest Landscape Integrity Index The Forest Landscape Integrity Index (FLII) is an annual global index of forest condition measured by degree of anthropogenic modification. Created by a team of 48 scientists, the FLII, in its measurement of 300m pixels of forest across the globe ...

mean score of 5.83/10, ranking it 94th globally out of 172 countries.

Mangrove degradation

Sri Lanka's mangrove forests, small trees that grow in coastal water, have been decreased by 70% since 1915. The size of mangrove ecosystems is being reduced because of the implementation of

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...

and aquaculture systems like fisheries. Shrimp aquaculture projects are one of the biggest threats. The shrimp business is growing very fast because of high demand and high profits. One of the negative impacts of shrimp farms is that mangroves are being destroyed where the farms are built. Mangroves however are very important for people living close to the coast. The reason for this is that mangroves offer products that can be used for cooking, building houses and fodder, as well as fish, and other food items. They also offer protection against floods and

pollutant A pollutant or novel entity is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. These can be both naturally forming (i.e. minerals or extracted compounds like o ...

s. Moreover, mangroves are important for other

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...

s and host

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Kingdom (biology), biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals Heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, are Motilit ...

s like

fish Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of ...

, crab and shrimp. In 2015, the government of Sri Lanka reached an agreement with

private companies A privately held company (or simply a private company) is a company whose shares and related rights or obligations are not offered for public subscription or publicly negotiated in the respective listed markets, but rather the company's stock is ...

non-governmental organization A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from g ...

s, researchers and members of affected communities. This agreement protects all mangrove forests in Sri Lanka by law. Moreover, they agreed to launch mangrove reforestation activities and to create alternative sources of income for locals.

Coral reef destruction

Coral reefs are threatened by human activities such as destructive fishing methods, coral-mining, pollution and unsustainable management practices. Extensive aquaculture is the biggest threat to coral reefs. Shrimp farms are especially destructive to coral reefs. Coral reefs are very important for the coastal population. They provide food, protect the

coast The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in ...

, and are popular destination for tourists and therefore are important for people's income. Most Sri Lankans live along the coast and the population is growing which will have greater negative consequences for the coral reefs.

Soil degradation

Parts of the dry zone as well as the wet zone are damaged by

soil degradation Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to ...

. Soil erosion in Sri Lanka is 14 to 33 times bigger than it would be without human influence. It has negative impacts on agriculture as well as on people's livelihood. Soil degradation is mainly caused by unsustainable agricultural practices, high intensity rainfall and indirectly caused by population growth which results in increased consumption. Tree plantation such as tea and rubber plantation cause low rates of soil erosion. Higher rates of soil erosion are caused by crops which are harvested annually like

potato The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern Unit ...

es, most

vegetable Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, ...

s and

tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...

. Soil degradation in the dry zone leads to desertification. The loss of soil also is a big problem near watersheds, because a lot of hydro power plants are built in those watersheds.

Air pollution

Air pollution is a problem in Sri Lanka's cities and it is mostly caused by vehicles. The number of motor vehicles almost tripled during the 1990s which also led to an increase in

traffic jams Traffic congestion is a condition in transport that is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. Traffic congestion on urban road networks has increased substantially since the 1950s. When traffic de ...

. The use of old vehicles and poor quality gas intensify negative consequences. Major air pollutants in Sri Lanka are

oxides of carbon In chemistry, an oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen. The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (). Many other stable (practically if not thermodynamic ...

oxides of nitrogen Nitrogen oxide may refer to a binary compound of oxygen and nitrogen, or a mixture of such compounds: Charge-neutral *Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide, or nitrogen monoxide *Nitrogen dioxide (), nitrogen(IV) oxide * Nitrogen trioxide (), or n ...

, oxides of sulfur,

particulates Particulates – also known as atmospheric aerosol particles, atmospheric particulate matter, particulate matter (PM) or suspended particulate matter (SPM) – are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The t ...

, inorganic compounds,

hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or ...

s and the secondary pollutant

photochemical smog Smog, or smoke fog, is a type of intense air pollution. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words ''smoke'' and ''fog'' to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor. The word was then inten ...

. These pollutants have negative impact on people's

health Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organiza ...

as they can cause respiratory illnesses,

asthma Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, co ...

or even death. Dust falls are also an issue in areas with a high traffic density. Besides outdoor pollution, indoor pollution also is a concern. The pollutants listed above have even worse impacts inside motor vehicles and buildings. Air pollution inside buildings is a severe problem when firewood is used for cooking. In 2000, 80% of

household A household consists of two or more persons who live in the same dwelling. It may be of a single family or another type of person group. The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models, and is i ...

s burned firewood for cooking which sets free many fine particles that can cause respiratory illnesses, and

cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...

Water pollution

Domestic activities,

industry Industry may refer to: Economics * Industry (economics), a generally categorized branch of economic activity * Industry (manufacturing), a specific branch of economic activity, typically in factories with machinery * The wider industrial sector ...

and agriculture cause water pollution in Sri Lanka.

River A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of w ...

s and

lake A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much large ...

s are most affected by pollutants. Pollutants that end up in lakes are sewage, vegetable waste and waste from hospitals. The pollution of lakes in Sri Lanka leads to

algal bloom An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term ''algae'' encompass ...

s, which reduces the

oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as ...

content and has negative consequences on fish populations. The

Kelani river The Kelani River ( si, කැළණි ගඟ) is a river in Sri Lanka. Ranking as the fourth-longest river in the country, it stretches from the Sri Pada Mountain Range to Colombo. It flows through or borders the Sri Lankan districts of Nuwara ...

is especially polluted because it flows through industrial areas. Industrial waste is often discharged into the river, treated or untreated. Moreover, dumps that are located close to rivers have negative influences on the water quality. Large amounts of pesticides used in the agricultural sector also get into the water of rivers and lakes.

Groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...

and surface water are also polluted by the heavy use of

fertilizer A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...

and pesticides and by storm run-offs. Coastal and marine waters are threatened by pesticides, fertilizer, industrial waste and run-offs from waste dumps. Rivers that flow out into the sea deteriorate the sea water. Oil spills, chemicals and non-biodegradable waste such as plastic also decrease the quality of Sri Lanka's seawater. Microplastic pollution has resulted in a drastic reduction of fish stocks. In 2000, only 25% of the households in Sri Lanka got their water through pipes. Even the water that does come through the pipe from local suppliers is not monitored efficiently. This is why a part of the population does not get clean drinking water. Sri Lanka's wastewater management requires a lot of work. Only approximately 2.5 percent of the population, primarily in the Colombo region, has access to sewers. The French Development Agency ( AFD) authorized a €75 million loan to improve sanitation services in

Ratmalana Ratmalana is a suburb in Colombo District, Western Province, Sri Lanka. It is inside the administration boundary of Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Municipal Council. Ratmalana is situated 14.6 km south of Colombo city centre. Ratmalana Airport locat ...

and Moratuwa, two overpopulated and rapidly increasing suburbs. This initiative will provide better sanitation services to 44, 500 individuals.

Waste management

Sri Lanka faces managerial problems in

waste collection Waste collection is a part of the process of waste management. It is the transfer of solid waste from the point of use and disposal to the point of treatment or landfill. Waste collection also includes the curbside collection of recyclable ...

and

waste disposal Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitorin ...

. A study from 2005 revealed that only 24% of the household had waste management and the percentage of access to waste collection is even smaller in rural areas (2%). Increased waste generation is caused by high population growth, industrialization,

urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...

and increased

consumption Consumption may refer to: *Resource consumption *Tuberculosis, an infectious disease, historically * Consumption (ecology), receipt of energy by consuming other organisms * Consumption (economics), the purchasing of newly produced goods for curren ...

Province A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman '' provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...

s and local authorities are over-strained by these large amounts. Collected waste is often brought to open dumps and is not treated. Moreover, some dumps are located in environmentally sensitive locations or close to residential areas. These problems are caused by a lack of governmental regulations and public commitment but also a lack of technical knowledge, low financial resources and too little suitable space for waste disposal sites. The effects of poor waste management is waste laying in the streets, waterways and swamps. These results influence the aesthetic of the landscape, decrease the

biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...

, cause health problems and have negative impacts on Sri Lanka's tourist industry. The study shows that in areas without waste collection, the majority of people dump their waste that should be going to the landfill in their backyard.

Plastic Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptab ...

s and

paper Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distrib ...

are often burned or also disposed in the backyard. Moreover,

green waste Green waste, also known as "biological waste", is any organic waste that can be composted. It is most usually composed of refuse from gardens such as grass clippings or leaves, and domestic or industrial kitchen wastes. Green waste does not inclu ...

is burned by 80% of the household in the southern provinces that do not have access to waste collection. Sri Lanka's government aims to address these problems by implementing

waste sorting Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements. Waste sorting can occur manually at the household and collected through curbside collection schemes, or automatically separated in materials recovery facilitie ...

systems in households, improved waste collection by municipalities and cities, composting systems and systematic treatment of hazardous waste from the industry and clinics.

Overfishing

Sri Lanka is experiencing declines in fish populations due to overfishing.

Climate change vulnerability

Sri Lanka's geographic location makes it vulnerable for climate change impacts. Expected impacts are an increase in temperature, more frequent extreme weather events like

flood A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrol ...

s and cyclones as well as sea level rise. Sea level rise is especially critical for Sri Lanka's coastal regions. These impacts negatively influence agriculture, fisheries, tourism, people's livelihood, and the environment. The impacts on agriculture and fisheries will in turn influence

food security Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World ...

and

export An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...

s of

crop A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydropon ...

s and fishes. Negative consequences for the environment include

biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, de ...

, ecosystem degradation and

water cycle The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly cons ...

disturbances. Sri Lanka has set goals in their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) how to implement climate change

mitigation Mitigation is the reduction of something harmful or the reduction of its harmful effects. It may refer to measures taken to reduce the harmful effects of hazards that remain ''in potentia'', or to manage harmful incidents that have already occur ...

and adaptation strategies in order to prevent severe climate change impacts. The government has already implemented regulations and guidelines like the National Climate Change Policy of Sri Lanka, the Climate Change Vulnerability Profiles and the Technology Action Plans for Climate Change Adaption and Mitigation in 2014. Moreover, steps have been taking to reduce possible impacts of climate change in Sri Lanka. These steps include but are not limited to building a more resilient infrastructure, actions to ensure human health and food security during and after climate change impacts like floods and cyclones, and the protection of the environment and the tourism sector.

Background

Major environmental issues

Deforestation

Mangrove degradation

Coral reef destruction

Soil degradation

Air pollution

Water pollution

Waste management

Overfishing

Climate change vulnerability

Environmental disasters

X-Press Pearl

References

Further reading