engineering Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...

, a process is a series of interrelated tasks that, together, transform inputs into a given output. These tasks may be carried out by people, nature or machines using various resources; an engineering process must be considered in the context of the agents carrying out the tasks and the resource attributes involved.Gilb, p392 Systems engineering normative documents and those related to Maturity Models are typically based on processes, for example, systems engineering processes of the EIA-632 and processes involved in the

Capability Maturity Model Integration Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a process level improvement training and appraisal program. Administered by the CMMI Institute, a subsidiary of ISACA, it was developed at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). It is required by many ...

(CMMI) institutionalization and improvement approach. Constraints imposed on the tasks and resources required to implement them are essential for executing the tasks mentioned.

Semiconductor industry

Semiconductor process engineers face the unique challenge of transforming raw materials into high-tech devices. Common semiconductor devices include

Integrated Circuits An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Large numbers of tiny ...

(ICs),

Light-Emitting Diodes A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (cor ...

(LEDs),

solar cells A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.

, and solid-state lasers. To produce these and other semiconductor devices, semiconductor process engineers rely heavily on interconnected physical and chemical processes. A prominent example of these combined processes is the use of ultra-violet photolithography which is then followed by wet

etching Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types ...

, the process of creating an IC pattern that is transferred onto an organic coating and etched onto the underlying semiconductor chip. Other examples include the

ion implantation Ion implantation is a low-temperature process by which ions of one element are accelerated into a solid target, thereby changing the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the target. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fa ...

dopant A dopant, also called a doping agent, is a trace of impurity element that is introduced into a chemical material to alter its original electrical or optical properties. The amount of dopant necessary to cause changes is typically very low. When ...

species to tailor the electrical properties of a semiconductor chip and the electrochemical deposition of metallic interconnects (e.g. electroplating). Process Engineers are generally involved in the development, scaling, and quality control of new semiconductor processes from lab bench to manufacturing floor.

Chemical engineering

A chemical process is a series of

unit operation In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process. Unit operations involve a physical change or chemical transformation such as separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomeriza ...

s used to produce a material in large quantities. In the chemical industry,

chemical engineers A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., wi ...

will use the following to define or illustrate a process: * Process flow diagram (PFD) *

Piping and instrumentation diagram A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID or PID) is a detailed diagram in the process industry which shows the piping and process equipment together with the instrumentation and control devices. Superordinate to the P&ID is the process flow di ...

(P&ID) * Simplified process description * Detailed process description * Project management *

Process simulation Process simulation is used for the design, development, analysis, and optimization of technical processes such as: chemical plants, chemical processes, environmental systems, power stations, complex manufacturing operations, biological processes, ...

CPRET

The ''Association Française d'Ingénierie Système'' has developed a process definition dedicated to Systems engineering (SE), but open to all domains. The CPRET representation integrates the process Mission and Environment in order to offer an external standpoint. Several models may correspond to a single definition depending on the language used (UML or another language). Note: process definition and modeling are interdependent notions but different the one from the other. * Process ** A process is a set of transformations of input elements into products: respecting constraints, ** requiring resources, ** meeting a defined mission, corresponding to a specific purpose adapted to a given environment. * Environment ** Natural conditions and external factors impacting a process. * Mission ** Purpose of the process tailored to a given environment. This definition requires a process description to include the Constraints, Products, Resources, Input Elements and Transformations. This leads to the CPRET acronym to be used as name and

mnemonic A mnemonic ( ) device, or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding. Mnemonics make use of elaborative encoding, retrieval cues, and imag ...

for this definition. * Constraints ** Imposed conditions, rules or regulations. * Products ** All whatever is generated by transformations. The products can be of the desired or not desired type (e.g., the software system and bugs, the defined products and waste). * Resources ** Human resources, energy, time and other means required to carry out the transformations. * Elements as inputs ** Elements submitted to transformations for producing the products. * Transformations ** Operations organized according to a logic aimed at optimizing the attainment of specific products from the input elements, with the allocated resources and on compliance with the imposed constraints.

CPRET through examples

The purpose of the following examples is to illustrate the definitions with concrete cases. These examples come from the Engineering field but also from other fields to show that the CPRET definition of processes is not limited to the System Engineering context. Examples of processes * An engineering (EIA-632,

ISO/IEC 15288 The ISO/IEC 15288 is a technical standard in systems engineering which covers processes and lifecycle stages, developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Planning ...

, etc.) * A concert * A polling campaign * A certification Examples of environment * Various levels of maturity, technicality, equipment * An audience * A political system * Practices Examples of mission * Supply better quality products * Satisfy the public, critics * Have candidates elected * Obtain the desired approval Examples of constraints * Imposed technologies * Correct acoustics * Speaking times * A reference model (ISO, CMMI, etc.) Examples of products * A mobile telephone network * A show * Vote results * A quality label Examples of resources * Development teams * An orchestra and its instruments * An organization * An assessment team Examples of elements as inputs * Specifications * Scores * Candidates * A company and its practices Examples of transformations * Define an architecture * Play the scores * Make people vote for a candidate * Audit the organization

Conclusions

The CPRET formalized definition systematically addresses the input Elements, Transformations, and Products but also the other essential components of a Process, namely the Constraints and Resources. Among the resources, note the specificity of the Resource-Time component which passes inexorably and irreversibly, with problems of synchronization and sequencing. This definition states that environment is an external factor which cannot be avoided: as a matter of fact, a process is always interdependent with other phenomena including other processes.

References

;Bibliography {{Refend Process engineering