Elias Loomis (August 7, 1811 – August 15, 1889) was an American mathematician. He served as a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Western Reserve College (now

Case Western Reserve University Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) is a private research university in Cleveland, Ohio. Case Western Reserve was established in 1967, when Western Reserve University, founded in 1826 and named for its location in the Connecticut Western Reser ...

), the

University of the City of New York New York University (NYU) is a private research university in New York City. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded by a group of New Yorkers led by then-Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin. In 1832, the ...

and

Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the w ...

. During his tenure at Western Reserve College in 1838, he established the Loomis Observatory, currently the second oldest

observatory An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysical, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. ...

in the

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Life and work

Loomis was born in Willington, Connecticut in 1811. He graduated at

Yale College Yale College is the undergraduate college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the original school of the university. Although other Yale schools were founded as early as 1810, all of Yale was officially known as Yale College until 1887, ...

in 1830, was a tutor there for three years (1833–36), and then spent the next year in scientific investigation in Paris. On his return, Loomis served as professor of mathematics and natural philosophy for eight years (1836–44) at Western Reserve College in Hudson,

Ohio Ohio () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Of the List of states and territories of the United States, fifty U.S. states, it is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 34th-l ...

, now

. During his tenure, he opened up the Loomis Observatory in 1838, currently the second oldest

in the

. From 1844 to 1860 he held the professorship of natural philosophy and mathematics in the

, and in the latter year became professor of

natural philosophy Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics, that is, nature and the physical universe. It was dominant before the development of modern science. From the ancien ...

Yale Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wor ...

. Professor Loomis published (besides many papers in the ''

American Journal of Science The ''American Journal of Science'' (''AJS'') is the United States of America's longest-running scientific journal, having been published continuously since its conception in 1818 by Professor Benjamin Silliman, who edited and financed it himsel ...

'' and in the ''

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society The American Philosophical Society (APS), founded in 1743 in Philadelphia, is a scholarly organization that promotes knowledge in the sciences and humanities through research, professional meetings, publications, library resources, and communit ...

'') many textbooks on mathematics, including ''Analytical Geometry and of the Differential and Integral Calculus'', published in 1835. In 1859 Alexander Wylie, assistant director of London Missionary Press in Shanghai, in cooperation with fellow Chinese scholar Li Shanlan, translated Elias Loomis's book on ''Geometry, Differential and Integral Calculus'' into Chinese. The Chinese text was subsequently translated twice by Japanese scholars into Japanese and published in Japan. Loomis's writings thus played an important role in the transfer of analytical mathematical knowledge to the Far East.

Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859

In his memoirMemoir Elias Loomis 1811–1889.
by H. A. Newton, Read Before the

National Academy A national academy is an organizational body, usually operating with state financial support and approval, that co-ordinates scholarly research activities and standards for academic disciplines, most frequently in the sciences but also the hu ...

, April 16, 1890 of Loomis, Hubert Anson Newton summarized Loomis's work on the historical Geomagnetic Storm of 1859.

Closely connected with terrestrial magnetism, and to be considered with it, is the Aurora Borealis. In the week that covered the end of August and the beginning of September, 1859, there occurred an exceedingly brilliant display of the Northern Lights. Believing that an exhaustive discussion of a single
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
promised to do more for the promotion of science than an imperfect study of an indefinite number of them, Professor Loomis undertook at once to collect and to collate accounts of this display. A large number of such accounts were secured from North America, from Europe, from Asia, and from places in the Southern Hemisphere; especially all the reports from the Smithsonian observers and correspondents, were placed in his hands by the Secretary, Professor Henry. These observations and the discussions of them were given to the public during the following two years, in a series of nine papers in the
American Journal of Science The ''American Journal of Science'' (''AJS'') is the United States of America's longest-running scientific journal, having been published continuously since its conception in 1818 by Professor Benjamin Silliman, who edited and financed it himsel ...
. Few, if any, displays on record were as remarkable as was this one for brilliancy or for geographical extent. Certainly about no
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
have there been collected so many facts. The display continued for a week. The luminous region entirely encircled the
North Pole The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Ma ...
of the earth. It extended on this continent on the 2d of September as far south, as
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...
, and to an unknown distance to the north. In altitude the bases of the columns of light were about fifty miles above the earth's surface, and the streamers shot up at times to a height of five hundred miles. Thus over a broad belt on both continents this large region above the lower atmosphere was filled with masses of luminous material. A display similar to this, and possibly of equal brilliancy, was at the same time witnessed in the Southern Hemisphere. The nine papers were mainly devoted to the statements of observers. Professor Loomis, however, went on to collect facts about other
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
s, and to make inductions from the whole of the material thus brought together. He showed that there was good reason for believing that not only was this display represented by a corresponding one in the Southern Hemisphere, but that all remarkable displays in either
hemisphere Hemisphere refers to: * A half of a sphere As half of the Earth * A hemisphere of Earth ** Northern Hemisphere ** Southern Hemisphere ** Eastern Hemisphere ** Western Hemisphere ** Land and water hemispheres * A half of the (geocentric) celes ...
are accompanied by corresponding ones in the other. He showed also that all the principal phenomena of electricity were developed during the
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
l display of 1859; that light was developed in passing from one conductor to another, that heat in poor conductors, that the peculiar electric shock to the animal system, the excitement of
magnetism Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that are mediated by a magnetic field, which refers to the capacity to induce attractive and repulsive phenomena in other entities. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles ...
in irons, the deflection of the
magnetic Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that are mediated by a magnetic field, which refers to the capacity to induce attractive and repulsive phenomena in other entities. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particl ...
needle, the decomposition of chemical solutions, each and all were produced during the auroral storm, and evidently by its agency. There were also in
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effects upon the
telegraph Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas ...
that were entirely consistent with the assumption previously made by
Walker Walker or The Walker may refer to: People * Walker (given name) *Walker (surname) * Walker (Brazilian footballer) (born 1982), Brazilian footballer Places In the United States *Walker, Arizona, in Yavapai County *Walker, Mono County, California ...
for England, that currents of electricity moved from northeast to southwest across the country. From the observations of the motion of auroral beams, he showed that they also moved from north-northeast to south-southwest, there being thus a general correspondence in motion between the electrical currents and the motion of the beams.

The following are the nine papers published by Professor Loomis pertaining to the Geomagnetic Storm of 1859. The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 28, pp. 385–408. November, 1859.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—2nd article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 29, pp. 92–97. January, 1860.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—3rd article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 29, pp. 249–266. February, 1860.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—4th article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 29, pp. 386–399. May, 1860.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geographical distribution of auroras and thunder storms—5th article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 30, pp. 79–100. July, 1860.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—6th article.
br /> (Selected from the Smithsonian papers.)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 30, pp. 339–361. November, 1860.
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—7th article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 32, pp. 71–84. July, 1861.
On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras generally—8th article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 32, pp. 318–335. September, 1861.
On electrical currents circulating near the earth's surface and their connection with the phenomena of the aurora polaris—9th article.
br /> Am. Jour. Sci. (2), vol. 34. pp. 34–45. July, 1862.
(On the action of electrical currents and the motion of auroral beams.)

As part of a 2006 review of the Geomagnetic Storm of 1859, M. A. Shea and D. F. Smart edited a compendium of eight articles published by Elias Loomis in the ''

'' from 1859 to 1861. The ninth and final paper was omitted and not referenced. Of the eleven pages in the ninth paper, only half a page deals with the great auroral exhibition of 1859, previously reported by Loomis, while the bulk of the paper deals with auroral events predating 1859. In the Compendium, for the 5th article in the series, the section on thunderstorms totaling six pages, is omitted with footnotes documenting the removal by the editors. In the citation to the 5th article the page range is given as 79–94, the correct range is 79–100. The citations for the 3rd and 4th articles gives the page ranges as 249–265 and 386–397; the correct values are 249–266 and 386–399, but the content is complete for both articles in the Compendium. In a November 21, 1861, paper to the

Royal Society The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...

Balfour Stewart acknowledged the work of Professor E. Loomis.

It is unnecessary to enter into further particulars regarding this meteor, as the description of it given by observations at places widely apart have been collected together by Professor E. Loomis, and published in a series of papers communicated to the ''
American Journal of Science and Arts The ''American Journal of Science'' (''AJS'') is the United States of America's longest-running scientific journal, having been published continuously since its conception in 1818 by Professor Benjamin Silliman, who edited and financed it himself ...
''. I shall only add that, both from the European, the
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
, and the Australian accounts, there appear to have been two great displays, each commencing at nearly the same absolute time, throughout the globe, —the first on the evening of 28 August, and the second on the early morning of 2 September, Greenwich time.

Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859, Other Reports

Reports Associated With the Stewart Super Flare Balfour Stewart reported that the

magnetic storm A geomagnetic storm, also known as a magnetic storm, is a temporary disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave and/or cloud of magnetic field that interacts with the Earth's magnetic field. The disturbance that d ...

from the Steward Super Flare began at 22:30 GMT on the evening of August 28, 1859, as recorded by self-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory. This was equivalent to approximately 17:30 EST and the sun would have been one hour and five minutes from sunset (18:35 EST) on that date in New York City; therefore, conditions would have been impossible for observing the onset of the

on the

East Coast of the United States The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, the Atlantic Coast, and the Atlantic Seaboard, is the coastline along which the Eastern United States meets the North Atlantic Ocean. The eastern seaboard contains the coa ...

, during the period of maximum intensity, and the rest of the country would have been in full sunlight for several more hours. Standardized

Time Zones Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, t ...

would not be established in the United States until 1883.
THE AURORA BOREALIS.; THE BRILLIANT DISPLAY ON SUNDAY NIGHT. PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE EVENT.
br />Mr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light.
The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.;
''The New York Times'', August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words
Mr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light. The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.; ''The New York Times'', August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words ''

The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...

'' report on the Stewart Super Flare for August 30, 1859, was on page one, above the fold, upper right corner and two full columns in length. This was the major news story for that date. The later reports on the Carrington Super Flare did not enjoy the same level of coverage, even though some of the displays may have been more spectacular given the timing of the events. Reports Associated With the Carrington Super Flare Balfour Stewart reported that the

from the Carrington Super Flare began at 05:00 GMT on the morning of September 2, 1859, as recorded by self-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory. This was equivalent to approximately midnight 00:00 EST in New York City. In all areas of the United States, not obscured by clouds, viewing conditions would have been ideal while the magnetic storm was at maximum intensity. Note that some locations in the Western United States could have reported events for late in the evening of September 1, 1859.
AURORA AUSTRALIS.; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning.
br />Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion-corp.
The Aurural Display in Boston.;
''The New York Times'', September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words
Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion-corp. The Aurural Display in Boston.; ''The New York Times'', September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words ''The New York Times'' report from

Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...

is of particular note because it may provide enough information to calculate the minimum illumination generated by the

aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...

The Auroral Display in Boston
Boston, Friday, Sept. 2
There was another display on the
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
last night, so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light. The effect continued through this forenoon considerably affecting the working of the telegraph lines. The
aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...
l currents from east to west were so regular that the operators on the Eastern lines were able to hold communication and transmit messages over the line between this
city A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
and Portland, the usual batteries being discontinued from the wire. The same effects were experienced upon the
Cape Cod Cape Cod is a peninsula extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer mont ...
and other lines.

One o'clock

time on Friday September 2, would have been 6:00 GMT and the self-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory was recording the geomagnetic storm, which was then one hour old, at its full intensity; this is amazingly accurate news reporting.
AURORAL PHENOMENA.; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires.

''The New York Times'', September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words
''The New York Times'', September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words Reports Associated With Both Super Flares
History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph
br />By George Bartlett Prescott (1860); 468 pagesHistory, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph
By George Bartlett Prescott (1860); 468 pages In George Bartlett Prescott's book,Chapter XIX on Terrestrial Magnetism (pp. 305–332)
contains multiple reports of

Aurora An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae), also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of bri ...

l events disrupting telegraph communications, the times for which are in remarkable good agreement with the times reports by Balfour Stewart for the two

s between August 28 and September 2, 1859. Detailed descriptions of the events and stations involved are provided in the narratives.
The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men
br />By James D. Reid (1879); 846 pages;The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men
By James D. Reid (1879); 846 pages
The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men
br />By James D. Reid (2015); 846 pages; James D. Reid's book is recommended by the author of the report "The Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph.

Writings

See pages i – xxii of ''The American Journal of Science'' (1890, volume 39, number 234) for a list of Loomis's publications. Among these are the following:
The recent progress of astronomy; especially in the United States
(1850)
Elements of Analytical Geometry and of the Differential and Integral Calculus
(1851)
The Elements of Geology Adapted to the Use of Schools and Colleges
(1852)
Elements of Natural Philosophy Designed for Academies and High Schools
(1858)
An Introduction to Practical Astronomy With a Collection of Astronomical Tables
(1860)
Elements of Geometry and Conic Sections
(1861)
Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry
(1862)
Tables of Logarithms of Numbers and of Sines and Tangents
(1862)
A Treatise on Algebra
(1868)
A treatise on meteorology : with a collection of meteorological tables
(1868) File:Loomis-1.jpg, 1877 copy of "A treatise on meteorology: with a collection of meteorological tables" File:Loomis-2.jpg, Title page to an 1877 copy of "A treatise on meteorology: with a collection of meteorological tables File:Loomis-9.jpg, First page of "A treatise on meteorology: with a collection of meteorological tables File:Loomis-10.jpg, Figure from "A treatise on meteorology: with a collection of meteorological tables

References

External links

*
Works by Elias Loomis
at

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Papers by Elias Loomis
at

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*Elias Loomis Family papers (MS 331). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library

{{DEFAULTSORT:Loomis, Elias American science writers People from Willington, Connecticut Yale College alumni 1811 births 1889 deaths Burials at Grove Street Cemetery Case Western Reserve University faculty