''Eleusine coracana'', or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a

cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...

crop in the

arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...

and

semiarid A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi- ...

areas in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

and

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...

. It is a tetraploid and

self-pollinating Self-pollination is a form of pollination in which pollen from the same plant arrives at the stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is transferr ...

species probably evolved from its wild relative '' Eleusine africana''. Finger millet is native to the

Ethiopian Ethiopians are the native inhabitants of Ethiopia, as well as the global diaspora of Ethiopia. Ethiopians constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in neighboring Eritrea and other parts of ...

and

Uganda }), is a landlocked country in East Africa. The country is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The ...

n highlands. Interesting crop characteristics of finger millet are the ability to withstand cultivation at altitudes over 2000 m above sea level, its high drought tolerance, and the long storage time of the grains.

History

Finger millet originated in

East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historica ...

(Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands). It was claimed to have been found in an Indian archaeological site dated to 1800 BCE (Late Bronze Age); however, this was subsequently demonstrated to be incorrectly identified cleaned grains of hulled millets. The oldest record of finger millet comes from an archaeological site in Africa dating to the 8th century AD. By 1996, cultivation of finger millet in Africa was declining rapidly because of the large amount of labor it required, with farmers preferring to grow nutritionally-inferior but less labor-intensive crops such as

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American English, North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous ...

sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many other ...

, and

cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', commonly called cassava (), manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated ...

. Such a decline was not seen in Asia, however.

Taxonomy and botanical description of finger millet

There are ten species under the genus ''Eleusine'' Gaertn, seven diploid (2n=16, 18 and 20) and three tetraploid taxa (2n=36 or 38). Eleusine a''fricana'' (Kenn.-O'Bryne), ''Eleusine coracana'' (L.) Gaertn, ''Eleusine floccifolia'' (Spreng), ''Eleusine indica'' (L.) ''Gaertn'', ''Eleusine intermedia'' (Chiov.) (S.M.Phillips), ''Eleusine jaegeri'' (Pilg.), ''Eleusine kigeziensis'' (S.M.Phillips), ''Eleusine multiflora'' (Hochst. ex A.Rich), ''Eleusine'' ''semisterilis'' (S.M.Phillips) and ''Eleusine tristachya'' (Lam.) Lam''.'' Different studies confirmed that ''Eleusine coracana'' was originated from ''E. indica'' and ''E. floccifolia'' genomes and selected for cultivation from its wild type ''E. Africana.''

Growing regions

Main cultivation areas are parts of eastern and southern Africaparticularly

Kenya ) , national_anthem = " Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"() , image_map = , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Nairobi , coordinates = , largest_city = Nairobi , ...

, the

Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and ...

Zambia Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most central point. Its neighbours are t ...

Malawi Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northe ...

, and

Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...

and parts of

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

and

Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...

. It is also grown in southern

Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...

and "as far south" in Africa as

Mozambique Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...

Climate requirements

Finger millet is a short-day plant with a growing optimum 12 hours of daylight for most varieties. Its main growing area ranges from 20°N to 20°S, meaning mainly the semiarid to arid tropics. Nevertheless, finger millet is found to be grown at 30°N in the

Himalaya The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...

region (India and Nepal). It is generally considered as a drought-tolerant crop, but compared with other millets, such as

pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Bajra' in Hindi, 'Sajje' in Kannada, 'Kambu' in Tamil, 'Bajeer' in Kumaoni and 'Maiwa' in Hausa, 'Mexoeira' in Mozambique) is the most ...

and

, it prefers moderate rainfall ( annually). The majority of worldwide finger millet farmers grow it rainfed, although yields often can be significantly improved when irrigation is applied. In India, finger millet is a typical'' rabi'' (dry-winter season) crop. Heat tolerance of finger millet is high. For Ugandan finger millet varieties, for instance, the optimal average growth temperature ranges at about 27 °C, while the minimal temperatures should not be lower than 18 °C. Relative to other species (pearl millet and sorghum), finger millet has a higher tolerance to cool temperatures. It is grown from about 500 to about 2400 m above sea level (e.g. in Himalaya region). Hence, it can be cultivated on higher elevations than most tropical crops. Finger millet can grow on various soils, including highly weathered tropical lateritic soils. It thrives in free-draining soils with steady moisture levels. Furthermore, it can tolerate

soil salinity Soil salinity is the salt (chemistry), salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral wea ...

up to a certain extent. Its ability to bear waterlogging is limited, so good drainage of the soils and moderate water-holding capacity are optimal. Finger millet can tolerate moderately acidic soils (pH 5), but also moderately alkaline soils (pH 8.2).

Cropping systems

Finger millet monocrops grown under rainfed conditions are most common in drier areas of Eastern Africa. In addition,

intercropping Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves growing two or more crops in proximity. In other words, intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. The most common goal of intercropping is ...

with legumes, such as

cowpea The cowpea (''Vigna unguiculata'') is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus ''Vigna''. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inputs, ...

pigeon pea The pigeon pea (''Cajanus cajan'') is a perennial legume from the family Fabaceae native to the Old World. The pigeon pea is widely cultivated in tropical and semitropical regions around the world, being commonly consumed in South Asia, Sout ...

, are also quite common in East Africa. Tropical Central Africa supports scattered regions of finger millet intercropping mostly with

legume A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock for ...

s, but also with

, plantain, and vegetables. Most common finger millet intercropping systems in South India are as follows: *With legumes: Finger millet/ dolichos, finger millet/ pigeonpea, finger millet/ black gram, finger millet/ castor *With cereals: Finger millet/maize, finger millet/

foxtail millet Foxtail millet, scientific name ''Setaria italica'' (synonym ''Panicum italicum'' L.), is an annual grass grown for human food. It is the second-most widely planted species of millet, and the most grown millet species in Asia. The oldest eviden ...

, finger millet/

jowar ''Sorghum bicolor'', commonly called sorghum () and also known as great millet, broomcorn, guinea corn, durra, imphee, jowar, or milo, is a grass species cultivated for its grain, which is used for food for humans, animal feed, and ethanol produ ...

, finger millet/

little millet ''Panicum sumatrense'', known as little millet, is a species of millet in the family Poaceae. Description This species of cereal is similar in habit to the proso millet except that it is smaller. It is an annual herbaceous plant, which grows ...

*With other species: Finger millet/

brassica ''Brassica'' () is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family ( Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, or mustard plants. Crops from this genus are sometimes called ''cole c ...

s, finger millet/ mustard

Weeds

Weeds are the major biotic stresses for finger millet cultivation. Its seeds are very small, which leads to a relatively slow development in early growing stages. This makes finger millet a weak competitor for light, water, and nutrients compared with weeds. In East and Southern Africa, the closely related species '' Eleusine indica'' (common name Indian goose grass) is a severe weed competitor of finger millet. Especially in early growing stages of the crop and the weed and when broadcast seeding instead of

row seeding Row or ROW may refer to: Exercise *Rowing, or a form of aquatic movement using oars *Row (weight-lifting), a form of weight-lifting exercise Math *Row vector, a 1 × ''n'' matrix in linear algebra. *Row (database), a single, implicitly structured ...

is applied (as often the case in East Africa), the two species are very difficult to distinguish. Besides '' Eleusine indica'', the species '' Xanthium strumarium,'' which is animal dispersed and the

stolon In biology, stolons (from Latin '' stolō'', genitive ''stolōnis'' – "branch"), also known as runners, are horizontal connections between organisms. They may be part of the organism, or of its skeleton; typically, animal stolons are external s ...

-owning species '' Cyperus rotondus'' and '' Cynodon dactylon'' are important finger millet weeds. Measures to control weeds include cultural, physical, and chemical methods. Cultural methods could be sowing in rows instead of broadcast sowing to make distinction between finger millet seedlings and ''E. indica'' easier when hand weeding. ICRISAT promotes

cover crop In agriculture, cover crops are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in ...

s and

crop rotation Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. It reduces reliance on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, and the probability of developing resistant ...

s to disrupt the growing cycle of the weeds. Physical weed control in financial resource-limited communities growing finger millet are mainly hand weeding or weeding with a hand hoe.

Diseases and pests

Finger millet is generally seen as not very prone to diseases and pests. Nonetheless, finger millet blast, caused by the fungal pathogen ''

Magnaporthe grisea ''Magnaporthe grisea'', also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot of graminea, pitting disease, ryegrass blast, Johnson spot, neck blast, wheat blast, and Imochi ( Japanese:稲熱) is ...

'' (anamorph ''

Pyricularia grisea ''Magnaporthe grisea'', also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot of graminea, pitting disease, ryegrass blast, Johnson spot, neck blast, wheat blast, and Imochi (Japanese:稲熱) is a ...

''), can locally cause severe damages, especially when untreated. In Uganda, yield losses up to 80% were reported in bad years. The pathogen leads to drying out of leaves, neck rots, and ear rots. These symptoms can drastically impair

photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration, can later be released to fuel the organism's activities. Some of this chemical energy is stored in ...

, translocation of photosynthetic assimilates, and grain filling, so reduce yield and grain quality. Finger millet blast can also infest finger millet weeds such as the closely related ''E. indica'', ''E. africana'', '' Digitaria ''spp., ''

Setaria ''Setaria'' is a widespread genus of plants in the grass family. The name is derived from the Latin word ''seta'', meaning "bristle" or "hair", which refers to the bristly spikelets. The genus includes over 100 species distributed in many tr ...

'' spp., and '' Doctylocterium spp''. Finger millet blast can be controlled with cultural measures, chemical treatments, and the use of resistant varieties. Researchers in Kenya have screened wild relatives of finger millet and landraces for resistance to blast. Cultural measures to control finger millet blast suggested by ICRISAT for Eastern Africa include crop rotations with nonhost crops such as

s, deep ploughing under of finger millet straw on infected fields, washing of field tools after use to prevent dissemination of the pathogen to uninfected fields, weed control to reduce infections by weed hosts, and avoiding of high plant densities to impede the pathogen dispersal from plant to plant. Chemical measures can be direct spraying of systemic

fungicide Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality ...

s, such as the active ingredients pyroquilon or tricyclazone or

seed dressing In agriculture and horticulture, a seed treatment is any additional material added to the seed. By the amount of material added, it can be divided into: * A seed dressing, typically containing a "protectant" (pesticide) applied to the seed and pos ...

s with fungicides such as trycyclozole. '' Striga,'' a parasitic weed which occurs naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia, can severely affect the crop and yield losses in finger millet and other cereals by 20 to 80%. ''Striga'' can be controlled with limited success by hand weeding, herbicide application, crop rotations, improved soil fertility, intercropping and biological control. The most economically feasible and environmentally friendly control measure would be to develop and use ''Striga''-resistant cultivars. ''Striga'' resistant genes have not been identified yet in cultivated finger millet but could be found in crop wild relatives of finger millet. ICRISAT is currentl
evaluating crop wild relatives
and will introgress ''Striga'' resistance into cultivated finger millet. Another pathogen of relevance in the finger millet cultivation is the fungus ''

Helminthosporium nodulosum ''Helminthosporium'' is a genus of fungi belonging to the family Massarinaceae. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all or most of the ...

'', causing leaf blight. Finger millet pests are bird predators, such as quelea in East Africa.

Insects

The pink stem borer (''

Sesamia inferens ''Sesamia inferens'', the Asiatic pink stem borer, gramineous stem borer, pink borer, pink rice borer, pink rice stem borer, pink stem borer, purple borer, purple stem borer or purplish stem borer, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species ...

'') and the finger millet shoot fly (''

Atherigona miliaceae ''Atherigona miliaceae'', the finger millet shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. The larvae feed on the central growing shoots of crops such as finger millet, little millet, and proso millet ''Panicum miliaceum'' is a grain ...

'') are considered as the most relevant insect pests in finger millet cultivation. Measures to control ''Sesamia inferens'' are uprooting of infected plants, destroying of stubbles, having a crop rotation, chemical control with

insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed t ...

s, biological measures such as pheromone traps, or

biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...

with the use of antagonistic organisms (e.g. ''

Sturmiopsis inferens ''Sturmiopsis inferens'' is a species of fly in the family Tachinidae. It is native to Asia and is a parasitoid of various moth species whose larvae feed inside the stems of sugarcane, rice and other large grasses, including the Gurdaspur bor ...

''). Other insect pests include: ;Root feeders *root aphid ''

Tetraneura nigriabdominalis The oriental grass root aphid (or rice root aphid), ''Tetraneura akinire'', is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. Ecology Hosts alternate between elm leaves and roots of ...

'' ;Shoot and stem feeders *''

'' and ''

Atherigona soccata ''Atherigona soccata'', the sorghum shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae whose larvae feed on the central growing shoots of millet crops like sorghum and finger millet, as well as maize, where they can cause serious loss of yield ...

'' *''

'' *stem weevil ''

Listronotus bonariensis ''Listronotus bonariensis'' is a species of weevil that is native to South America and is commonly known as the Argentine stem weevil. It is a pest of grasses and cereals, with the larvae being more destructive than the adult insects. It has s ...

'' ;Leaf feeders *hairy caterpillars, ''

Amsacta albistriga ''Amsacta albistriga'', the red hairy caterpillar, is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in southern India, where it has been recorded feeding on finger millet and sorghum. The wingspan The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an ...

'', ''

Amsacta transiens ''Amsacta'' is a genus of tiger moths in the family Erebidae The Erebidae are a family of moths in the superfamily Noctuoidea. The family is among the largest families of moths by species count and contains a wide variety of well-known ma ...

'', and ''

Amsacta moorei ''Paramsacta moorei'' is a moth of the family Erebidae. It was described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1875. It is found in India and Pakistan.Agrotis ipsilon'' *armyworm larvae of ''

Spodoptera exempta The African armyworm (''Spodoptera exempta''), also called ''okalombo'', ''kommandowurm'', or nutgrass armyworm, is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. The larvae often exhibit marching behavior when traveling to feeding sites, leading to ...

'', ''

Spodoptera mauritia ''Spodoptera mauritia'', the lawn armyworm or paddy swarming caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1833. Able to eat many types of food, it is a major pest throughout the wor ...

'', and ''

Mythimna separata ''Mythimna separata'', the northern armyworm, oriental armyworm or rice ear-cutting caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in China, Japan, South-east Asia, India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, and some Pacific islands. I ...

'' *leaf-folder ''

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis ''Cnaphalocrocis medinalis'', the rice leafroller, is a species of moth of the family Crambidae. It is found in south-east Asia, including Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and most of Australia. The wingspan is about . The larvae are cons ...

'' larvae *skipper ''

Pelopidas mathias ''Pelopidas mathias'', the dark small-branded swift, small branded swift, lesser millet skipper or black branded swift, is a butterfly belonging to the family Hesperiidae. It is found throughout much of south, southeast and East Asia, and as far ...

'' larvae *grasshoppers, '' Chrotogonus hemipterus'', '' Nomadacris septemfasciata'', and '' Locusta migratoria'' *beetle grubs of ''

Chnootriba similis ''Chnootriba similis'', the teff epilachna beetle, is a species of lady beetle Coccinellidae () is a widespread family of small beetles ranging in size from . They are commonly known as ladybugs in North America and ladybirds in Great Brit ...

'' *thrip, ''

Heliothrips indicus ''Heliothrips indicus'' is a species of thrips. It is a pest of millets such as on finger millet, sorghum, and pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Bajra' i ...

'' ;Sucking pests *aphids, ''

Hysteroneura setariae The rusty plum aphid (''Hysteroneura setariae'') is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is known from Yemen, and has also been recorded feeding on sorghum and other mil ...

'', ''

Metopolophium dirhodum ''Metopolophium dirhodum'', the rose-grain aphid or rose-grass aphid, is a species of sap-sucking insect in the family Aphididae found worldwide. Its primary host is rose, and its secondary host is a grass, including cereals such as wheat, barley ...

'', ''

Rhopalosiphum maidis ''Rhopalosiphum maidis'', common names corn leaf aphid and corn aphid, is an insect, and a pest of maize and other crops. It has a nearly worldwide distribution and is typically found in agricultural fields, grasslands, and forest-grassland zone ...

'', and ''

Sitobion miscanthi The Indian grain aphid (''Sitobion miscanthi''), also known as ''Sitobion (Sitobion) miscanthi'', is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from cereal plants, making it a pest of wheat p ...

'' *mealy bug, '' Brevennia rehi'' *leaf hoppers ''

Cicadulina bipunctella ''Cicadulina'' is a leafhopper genus in the tribe Macrostelini. ''Cicadulina'' species are vectors of the maize streak virus, a disease which is a sporadic but severe in sub-Saharan Africa. The cause is a geminivirus which is persistently trans ...

bipunctella'' and ''

Cicadulina chinai ''Cicadulina chinai'' is a species of true bug in the family Cicadellidae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human ...

Propagation and sowing

Propagation in finger millet farming is done mainly by seeds. In rainfed cropping, four sowing methods are used: *Broadcasting: Seeds are directly sown in the field. This is the common method because it is the easiest way and no special machinery is required. The organic weed management with this method is a problem, because it is difficult to distinguish between weed and crop. *Line Sowing: Improved sowing compared to broadcasting. Facilitates organic weed management due to better distinction of weed and crop. In this method, spacing of 22 cm to 30 cm between lines and 8 cm to 10 cm within lines should be maintained. The seeds should be sown about 3 cm deep in the soil. *Drilling in rows: Seeds are sown directly in the untreated soil by using a direct-seed drill. This method is used in conservation agriculture. *Transplanting the seedlings: Raising the seedlings in nursery beds and transplant to the main field. Leveling and watering of beds is required during transplanting. Seedlings with 4 weeks age should be transplanted in the field. For early Rabi and Kharif season, seedlings should be transplanted at 25 cm x 10 cm and for late Kharif season at 30 cm x 10 cm. Planting should be done 3 cm depth in the soil

Harvest

A handful of hope in Gulu, northern Uganda (6721454911)

Crop does not mature uniformly and hence the harvest is to be taken up in two stages. When the earhead on the main shoot and 50% of the earheads on the crop turn brown, the crop is ready for the first harvest. At the first harvest, all earheads that have turned brown should be cut. After this drying, threshing and cleaning the grains by winnowing. The second harvest is around seven days after the first. All earheads, including the green ones, should be cut. The grains should then be cured to obtain maturity by heaping the harvested earheads in shade for one day without drying, so that the humidity and temperature increase and the grains get cured. After this drying, threshing and cleaning as after the first harvesting.

Storage

Once harvested, the

seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...

s keep extremely well and are seldom attacked by

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pa ...

s or moulds. Finger millet can be kept for up to 10 years when it is unthreshed. Some sources report a storage duration up to 50 years under good storage conditions. The long storage capacity makes finger millet an important

crop A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydropon ...

in risk-avoidance strategies as a famine crop for farming communities.

Processing

Milling

As a first step of processing finger millet can be milled to produce

flour Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cul ...

. However, finger millet is difficult to mill due to the small size of the seeds and because the bran is bound very tightly to the

endosperm The endosperm is a tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following double fertilization. It is triploid (meaning three chromosome sets per nucleus) in most species, which may be auxin-driven. It surrounds the embryo an ...

. Furthermore, the delicate seed can get crushed during the milling. The development of commercial mechanical milling systems for finger millet is challenging. Therefore, the main product of finger millet is

whole grain A whole grain is a grain of any cereal and pseudocereal that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm. As part of a general healthy diet, consumption of whole grains is associated ...

flour. This has disadvantages, such as reduced storage time of the flour due to the high oil content. Furthermore, the industrial use of whole grain finger millet flour is limited. Moistening the millet seeds prior to grinding helps to remove the bran mechanically without causing damage to the rest of the seed. The mini millet mill can also be used to process other grains such as

wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...

and

Malting

Another method to process the finger millet grain is germinating the seed. This process is also called

malting Malting is the process of steeping, germinating and drying grain to convert it into malt. The malt is mainly used for brewing or whisky making, but can also be used to make malt vinegar or malt extract. Various grains are used for malting, mo ...

and is very common in the production of brewed beverages such as

beer Beer is one of the oldest and the most widely consumed type of alcoholic drink in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from ce ...

. When finger millet is germinated, enzymes are activated, which transfer

starch Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human die ...

es into other

carbohydrate In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may o ...

s such as

sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or do ...

s. Finger millet has a good malting activity. The malted finger millet can be used as a substrate to produce for example gluten-free beer or easily digestible food for infants. Ragi Porridge

Uses

Finger millet can be

ground Ground may refer to: Geology * Land, the surface of the Earth not covered by water * Soil, a mixture of clay, sand and organic matter present on the surface of the Earth Electricity * Ground (electricity), the reference point in an electrical c ...

into a

and cooked into cakes,

pudding Pudding is a type of food. It can be either a dessert or a savoury (salty or spicy) dish served as part of the main meal. In the United States, ''pudding'' means a sweet, milk-based dessert similar in consistency to egg-based custards, inst ...

s or

porridge Porridge is a food made by heating or boiling ground, crushed or chopped starchy plants, typically grain, in milk or water. It is often cooked or served with added flavourings such as sugar, honey, (dried) fruit or syrup to make a sweet cereal, ...

. The flour is made into a fermented drink (or

) in

and in many parts of Africa. The

straw Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. It makes up about half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat. It has a number ...

from finger millet is used as animal fodder.

Nutrition

Finger millet is 11% water, 7%

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...

, 54%

s, and 2% fat (table). In a 100 gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, finger millet supplies 305

calorie The calorie is a unit of energy. For historical reasons, two main definitions of "calorie" are in wide use. The large calorie, food calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of o ...

s, and is a rich source (20% or more of the

Daily Value The Reference Daily Intake (RDI) used in nutrition labeling on food and dietary supplement products in the U.S. and Canada is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of healthy ...

, DV) of

dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by t ...

and several

dietary minerals In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, ...

, especially

iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in ...

at 87% DV (table).

Growing finger millet to improve nutrition

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT), a member of the

CGIAR CGIAR (formerly the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) is a global partnership that unites international organizations engaged in research about food security. CGIAR research aims to reduce rural poverty, increase food ...

consortium, partners with farmers, governments, researchers and NGOs to help farmers grow nutritious crops, including finger millet. This helps their communities have more balanced diets and become more resilient to pests and drought. For example, the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement of Sorghum and Millets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (HOPE) project is increasing yields of finger millet in

by encouraging farmers to grow improved varieties.

Preparation as food

In India

The finger millet or ragi is

malt Malt is germinated cereal grain that has been dried in a process known as " malting". The grain is made to germinate by soaking in water and is then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air. Malted grain is used to make beer, w ...

ed and its grain is

into

. The flour is consumed with

milk Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfed human infants) before they are able to digest solid food. Immune factors and immune-modulat ...

, boiled water, or

yogurt Yogurt (; , from tr, yoğurt, also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as ''yogurt cultures''. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bac ...

. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leavened

dosa Dosa may refer to: People * Bogoljub Mitić Đoša, Serbian actor * Csaba Dosa (born 1951), Romanian athlete * Dosa ben Harkinas * Dosa ben Saadia (935 - 1018), Talmudic scholar and philosopher * Dosa or Dossa Júnior * Edward Dosa-Wea Neufv ...

and thicker, unleavened

roti Roti (also known as chapati) is a round flatbread native to the Indian subcontinent. It is popular in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, Trin ...

. There are various food recipes of finger millet, including

idli Idli or idly () is a type of savoury rice cake, originating from the South India,popular as breakfast foods in Southern India and in Sri Lanka. The cakes are made by steaming a batter consisting of fermented black lentils (de-husked) and ric ...

, and laddu. In

southern India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...

, on pediatrician's recommendation, finger millet is used in preparing

baby food Baby food is any soft easily consumed food other than breastmilk or infant formula that is made specifically for human babies between four and six months and two years old. The food comes in many varieties and flavors that are purchased ready-ma ...

, because of millet's high nutritional content, especially

and

calcium Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar ...

. ''Satva'', ''pole'' (dosa), ''bhakri'', ''ambil'' (a sour porridge), and pappad are common dishes made using finger millet. In Karnataka, finger millet is generally consumed in the form of a porridge called ''

ragi mudde Ragi mudde, ragi sangati or kali, colloquially simply referred to as either (which means 'lump') or '','' i.e. 'flour'); is a wholesome meal in the state of Karnataka and the Rayalaseema region in Andhra Pradesh. It is mainly popular with th ...

'' in Kannada. It is the staple diet of many residents of South Karnataka. Mudde is prepared by cooking the ragi flour with water to achieve a dough-like consistency. This is then rolled into balls of desired size and consumed with sambar (huli), saaru (ಸಾರು), or curries. Ragi is also used to make

and

conjee Congee or conjee ( ) is a type of rice porridge or gruel eaten in Asian countries. It can be eaten plain, where it is typically served with side dishes, or it can be served with ingredients such as meat, fish, seasonings and flavourings, most o ...

. In the Malnad region of Karnataka, the whole ragi grain is soaked and the milk is extracted to make a dessert known as ''keelsa''. A type of flat bread is prepared using finger millet flour (called ''ragi rotti'' in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

) in Northern districts of

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...

. In Tamil Nadu, ragi is called ''kezhvaragu'' (கேழ்வரகு) and also has other names like keppai, ragi, and ariyam. Ragi is dried, powdered, and boiled to form a thick mass that is allowed to cool. This is the famed ''kali'' or ''keppai kali''. This is made into large balls to quantify the intake. It is taken with sambar or

kuzhambu Kuḻambu ( ta, குழம்பு), is a common dish in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan cuisines, and is a tamarind based dish that can include a variety of meat, vegetables, and in some cases, dal. Kuḻambu is a watery dish based on a broth ma ...

. For children, ragi is also fed with milk and sugar (

). It is also made in the form of pancakes with chopped onions and tomatoes. ''Kezhvaragu'' is used to make puttu with

jaggery Jaggery is a traditional non-centrifugal cane sugar consumed in the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is a concentrated product of cane juice and often date or palm sap without separation of the molasses and crystals, and ...

. Ragi is called ''koozh'' – a staple diet in farming communities, eaten along with raw onions and green chillies. In Andhra Pradesh, ''ragi sankati'' or ''ragi muddha'' – ragi balls – are eaten in the morning with chilli, onions, and sambar. In Kerala, puttu, a traditional breakfast dish, can be made with ragi flour and grated coconut, which is then steamed in a cylindrical steamer. In the tribal and western hilly regions of

Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...

, ragi or ''mandiaa'' is a staple food. In the

Garhwal Garhwal may refer to the following topics associated with Uttarakhand, India: Places *Garhwal Himalaya, a sub-range of the Himalayas *Garhwal Kingdom, a former kingdom *Garhwal District (British Garhwal), a former district of British India *Garh ...

and Kumaon regions of

Uttarakhand Uttarakhand ( , or ; , ), also known as Uttaranchal ( ; the official name until 2007), is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the "Devbhumi" (literally 'Land of the Gods') due to its religious significance and ...

, ''koda'' or ''maduwa'' is made into thick rotis (served with ghee), and also made into ''badi'', which is similar to

halwa Halva (also halvah, halwa, and other spellings, Persian : حلوا) is a type of confectionery originating from Persia and widely spread throughout the Middle East. The name is used for a broad variety of recipes, generally a thick paste made f ...

but without sugar. In the Kumaon region, ragi is traditionally fed to women after child birth. In some parts of Kumaon region the ragi flour is used to make various snacks like ''namkeen sev'', ''mathri'' and
chips
'.

In South and Far East Asia

, a thick dough (''ḍhĩḍo'') made of millet flour (''kōdō'') is cooked and eaten by hand. The dough, on other hand, can be made into thick bread (''rotee'') spread over flat utensil and heating it. Fermented millet is used to make a beer

chhaang Chhaang or chhyang (, ne, छ्याङ, new, थो:) is a Nepalese and Tibetan alcoholic beverage also popular in parts of the eastern Himalayas, Yakkha, Limbu, Dura, Newar, Sunuwar, Rai, Gurung, Magar, Sherpa, Tamang and Lepc ...

and the mash is distilled to make a liquor (''rakśi''शी). Whole grain millet is fermented to make

tongba Tongba ( ne, तोङबा ) is a millet-based alcoholic beverage found in the eastern mountainous region of Nepal and neighbouring Indian regions of Sikkim and Darjeeling. It is the traditional drink of the Limbu people as well as people o ...

. Its use in holy Hindu practices is barred especially by upper castes. In Nepal, the National Plant Genetic Resource Centre at Khumaltar maintains 877 accessions (samples) of Nepalese finger millet (kodo). In Sri Lanka, finger millet is called ''kurakkan'' and is made into ''kurakkan roti'' – an earthy brown thick roti with coconut and ''thallapa'' – a thick dough made of ragi by boiling it with water and some salt until like a dough ball. It is then eaten with a spicy meat curry and is usually swallowed in small balls, rather than chewing. It is also eaten as a soup (kurrakan kenda) and as a sweet called 'Halape'. In northwest Vietnam, finger millet is used as a medicine for women at childbirth. A minority use finger millet flour to make alcohol.

As beverage

Ragi malt porridge is made from finger millet which is soaked and shadow dried, then roasted and ground. This preparation is boiled in water and used as a substitute for milk powder-based beverages.

Gallery

Finger millet.jpg, Finger millet Ragi (Eleusine coracana) BNC (cropped).png, Multicolored finger millet grains Pappad made of finger millet (Eleusine coracana).jpg, Pappad made of finger millet Ragi und bajji.jpg, Ragi ''mudde'' and bhajji with sambar and

chutney A chutney is a spread in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. Chutneys are made in a wide variety of forms, such as a tomato relish, a ground peanut garnish, yogurt or curd, cucumber, spicy coconut, spicy onion or mint dipping sauce ...

Roti made from Eleusine coracana.jpg, Roti Ragi idli.JPG, Ragi idli Ragi Idli South India (Finger Millet).jpg,

Idli Idli or idly () is a type of savoury rice cake, originating from the South India,popular as breakfast foods in Southern India and in Sri Lanka. The cakes are made by steaming a batter consisting of fermented black lentils (de-husked) and ric ...

, a South Indian breakfast dish made from ragi flour Chhaang.jpg, Chhaang

References

External links

'Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.'
* {{Agriculture country lists * Cereals Grasses of Africa Grasses of Asia Chloridoideae Crops originating from Ethiopia