The Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests is a

temperate coniferous forests Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Temperate coniferous forests are found predominantly in areas with warm summers and cool winters, and vary in their kinds of plant life. In some, needl ...

ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of ...

which is found in the middle and upper elevations of the eastern Middle

Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...

, in western

Nepal Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...

Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...

, and northern

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

n states including

Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares ...

and

Sikkim Sikkim (; ) is a state in Northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Province No. 1 of Nepal in the west and West Bengal in the south. Sikkim is also close to the Silig ...

Setting

The ecoregion forms a belt of coniferous forest covering from elevation extending from the

Gandaki River The Gandaki River, also known as the Narayani and the Gandak, is one of the major rivers in Nepal and a left bank tributary of the Ganges in India. Its total catchment area amounts to , most of it in Nepal. In the Nepal Himalayas, it is notab ...

in Nepal east through Bhutan and into

. It is part of a transition zone from Indomalayan realm in the south, to the

Palearctic realm The Palearctic or Palaearctic is the largest of the eight biogeographic realms of the Earth. It stretches across all of Eurasia north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. The realm consists of several bioregions: the Euro-Sib ...

in the north, and is the last habitat below the treeline of the Himalayas. The Himalayas are lined with belts of habitat from the grassy foothills to the high peaks and are home to a number of birds and animals that migrate seasonally through these zones, including these conifer forests, each of which provides crucial habitat at different times of the year. Furthermore the streams and rivers of the steep mountainsides will flood if not held in place by woodland. The Eastern Himalayas are watered by the

Bay of Bengal The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line betwee ...

monsoon so are wetter than in the west and have a higher treeline (4,500m compared to 3,000m in the western Himalayas).

Flora

These forests are typically found on steep, rocky, north-facing slopes. The most common trees are '' Abies spectabilis, Larix griffithii, Juniperus recurva,

Juniperus indica ''Juniperus indica'', the black juniper, is a juniper native to high-altitude climates in the Himalaya, occurring in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and China. It is of interest as the highest elevation woody plant known, reported growing as h ...

, Betula utilis'', '' Acer'' spp., and ''

Sorbus ''Sorbus'' is a genus of over 100 species of trees and shrubs in the rose family, Rosaceae. Species of ''Sorbus'' (''s.l.'') are commonly known as whitebeam, rowan ( mountain-ash) and service tree. The exact number of species is disputed depe ...

'' spp. The understory features a rich community of colourful rhododendrons, including ''

Rhododendron hodgsonii ''Rhododendron'' (; from Ancient Greek ''rhódon'' "rose" and ''déndron'' "tree") is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are nati ...

'', ''

Rhododendron barbatum ''Rhododendron'' (; from Ancient Greek ''rhódon'' "rose" and ''déndron'' "tree") is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are nati ...

'', ''

Rhododendron campylocarpum ''Rhododendron campylocarpum'' (弯果杜鹃) is a rhododendron species native to eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, southeastern Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau ...

'', ''

Rhododendron campanulatum ''Rhododendron campanulatum'', the bell-flowered rhododendron or bell rhododendron, is a species of flowering plant in the family Ericaceae, native to the Himalayas and Tibet. It is the state flower of Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh (; ; ...

Rhododendron fulgens ''Rhododendron fulgens'' (猩红杜鹃) is a rhododendron species native to Bhutan, northeast India, Nepal, Sikkim Sikkim (; ) is a state in Northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhu ...

'', and '' Rhododendron thomsonii''. Other shrubs include ''

Viburnum grandiflorum ''Viburnum grandiflorum'', variously called the cranberry bush, flowering viburnum, grand viburnum, and Himalayan viburnum, is a species of flowering plant in the family Viburnaceae, native to the Himalayan region. It grows in open forests. A sp ...

'' and '' Lonicera angustifolia''. '' Tsuga dumosa'' occurs in wetter areas and lower elevations. ''

Pinus wallichiana ''Pinus wallichiana'' is a coniferous evergreen tree native to the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountains, from eastern Afghanistan east across northern Pakistan and north west India to Yunnan in southwest China. It grows in mountain valle ...

'' occurs in drier areas around

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...

. It is particularly common in the

Khumbu Khumbu (also known as the Everest Region) is a region of northeastern Nepal on the Nepalese side of Mount Everest. It is part of the Solukhumbu District, which in turn is part of Province No. 1.Bradley, Mayhew; "Trekking in the Nepal Himalaya"; ( ...

region. ''

Taxus baccata ''Taxus baccata'' is a species of evergreen tree in the family Taxaceae, native to western, central and southern Europe (including Britain and Ireland), northwest Africa, northern Iran, and southwest Asia.Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain ...

'' is important but uncommon. Juniper woodlands grow in flat, inner river valleys, mixed with various species of ''

Salix Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist s ...

'' and ''

Prunus ''Prunus'' is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes (among many others) the fruits plums, Cherry, cherries, peaches, Peach#Nectarine, nectarines, apricots, and almonds. Native to the North American temperate regions, the neotropics of Sou ...

''. Those in the Tsarijathang Valley in Bhutan's

Jigme Dorji National Park The Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), named after the late Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, is the second-largest National Park of Bhutan. It occupies almost the entire Gasa District, as well as the northern areas of Thimphu District, Paro District, Puna ...

are an important summer habitat for takin ('' Budorcas taxicolor'').

Fauna

This ecoregion is home to some eighty-nine species of mammals originally from both

Indomalayan The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...

and

s, including

civet A civet () is a small, lean, mostly nocturnal mammal native to tropical Asia and Africa, especially the tropical forests. The term civet applies to over a dozen different species, mostly from the family Viverridae. Most of the species diversit ...

s, martens,

Himalayan tahr The Himalayan tahr (''Hemitragus jemlahicus'') is a large even-toed ungulate native to the Himalayas in southern Tibet, northern India, western Bhutan and Nepal. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, as the population is declini ...

and

muntjac Muntjacs ( ), also known as the barking deer or rib-faced deer, (URL is Google Books) are small deer of the genus ''Muntiacus'' native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. Muntjacs are thought to have begun appearing 15–35 million years ago, ...

. The

white-bellied musk deer The white-bellied musk deer or Himalayan musk deer (''Moschus leucogaster'') is a musk deer species occurring in the Himalayas of Nepal, Bhutan, India, Pakistan and China. It is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List because of overexploitatio ...

, hunted for its

musk Musk ( Persian: مشک, ''Mushk'') is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial sub ...

-glands, and the endangered

red panda The red panda (''Ailurus fulgens''), also known as the lesser panda, is a small mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China. It has dense reddish-brown fur with a black belly and legs, white-lined ears, a mostly white muzzle ...

are important inhabitants for whom the conifer forests are typical habitat with the red panda living between 3,000m and 4,000m where there is an undercover of bamboo beneath the fir trees. Other endangered species found here are the takin,

Himalayan serow The Himalayan serow (''Capricornis sumatraensis thar''), also known as the thar ( , ), is a subspecies of the mainland serow native to the Himalayas. It was previously considered its own species, as ''Capricornis thar''. It is the official state ...

(''Capricornis thar''), and particolored flying squirrel (''Hylopetes alboniger'') while Mandelli's mouse-eared bat, the Asiatic wild dog, the

Asiatic black bear The Asian black bear (''Ursus thibetanus''), also known as the Asiatic black bear, moon bear and white-chested bear, is a medium-sized bear species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an or ...

and the Himalayan tahr are considered vulnerable. There are two near-endemic squirrels, Hodgson's giant flying squirrel (''Petaurista magnificus'') and the Bhutan giant flying squirrel (''Petaurista nobilis'') along with a pure endemic rodent, the Himalayan field mouse (''Apodemus gurkha''). About 200 species of birds have been recorded in this ecoregion of which six are endemic; chestnut-breasted partridge (''Arborophila mandellii''),

hoary-throated barwing The hoary-throated barwing (''Actinodura nipalensis'') is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae. It is found in along the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in the Eastern Himalayas, and ranges across Bhutan ...

(''Actinodura nipalensis''), brown-throated fulvetta (''Alcippe ludlowi''),

Nepal cupwing The Nepal cupwing (''Pnoepyga immaculata''), also known as the Nepal wren-babbler or immaculate cupwing, is a small species of passerine bird in the family Pnoepygidae. It is native to Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Tibet, and Nepal. It is found ...

(''Pnoepyga immaculata''), buff-throated partridge (''Tetraophasis szechenyii''), and Lord Derby's parakeet (''Psittacula derbiana''). The last two are limited to an area of conifer forest in Arunachal Pradesh. Threatened or endangered birds of the ecoregion include Tibetan eared pheasant (''Crossoptilon harmani'') and

Sclater's monal Sclater's monal (''Lophophorus sclateri'') also known as the crestless monal is a Himalayan pheasant. The name commemorates the British zoologist Philip Lutley Sclater. Taxonomy There are two recognized subspecies: * ''L. s. arunachalensis'' (Ku ...

(''Lophophorus sclateri''). A number of other birds are sensitive to habitat change and therefore potentially vulnerable, including the blood pheasant (''Ithaginis cruentus''),

Blyth's tragopan Blyth's tragopan (''Tragopan blythii'') or the grey-bellied tragopan, is a pheasant that is a vulnerable species. The common name commemorates Edward Blyth (1810–1873), English zoologist and Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Benga ...

(''Tragopan blythii''), satyr tragopan (''Tragopan satyra''), Ward's trogon (''Harpactes wardi'') and chestnut-breasted partridge. Indeed this ecoregion forms part of two BirdLife International Endemic Bird Areas because of the number of birds for which the conifers are important for breeding.

Threats and conservation

The human population of these heights is very low and most of the natural conifer forest remains with a considerable portion in protected areas. Damage is caused as trees are cut to provide firewood for local inhabitants and for trekking parties or to clear land for grazing. 34.69% of the encoregion is in protected areas. Large protected areas that contain areas of conifer forest include

Annapurna Annapurna (; ne, अन्नपूर्ण) is a mountain situated in the Annapurna mountain range of Gandaki Province, north-central Nepal. It is the tenth highest mountain in the world at above sea level and is well known for the diffic ...

Conservation Area,

Langtang Langtang valley is a Himalayan valley in the mountains of north-central Nepal, known for its trekking routes and natural environment. Administrative The Langtang valley lies in the Rasuwa district of the Bagmati Province in Nepal. Situ ...

and Makalu Barun National Parks in Nepal, Khangchendzonga, Namdapha and Singalila National Parks in India, and Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, and

s in Bhutan.

References

{{reflist Temperate coniferous forests Ecoregions of the Himalayas Ecoregions of Bhutan Ecoregions of India Ecoregions of Nepal Biota of Bhutan Biota of India Biota of Nepal Ecoregions of Asia Himalayan forests Indomalayan ecoregions Forests of Nepal

Setting

Flora

Fauna

Threats and conservation

See also

References