Dur-Kurigalzu (modern ' in

Baghdad Governorate Baghdad Governorate ( ar, محافظة بغداد ''Muḥāfaẓät Baġdād''), also known as the Baghdad Province, is the capital governorate of Iraq. It includes the capital Baghdad as well as the surrounding metropolitan area. The governorat ...

Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...

) was a city in southern

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...

, near the confluence of the

Tigris The Tigris () is the easternmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the ...

and Diyala rivers, about west of the center of

Baghdad Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...

. It was founded by a

Kassite The Kassites () were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of Babyl ...

king of

Babylon ''Bābili(m)'' * sux, 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 * arc, 𐡁𐡁𐡋 ''Bāḇel'' * syc, ܒܒܠ ''Bāḇel'' * grc-gre, Βαβυλών ''Babylṓn'' * he, בָּבֶל ''Bāvel'' * peo, 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 ''Bābiru'' * elx, 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 ''Babi ...

Kurigalzu I Kurigalzu I (died c. 1375 BC), usually inscribed ''ku- ri- gal-zu'' but also sometimes with the m or d determinative, the 17th king of the Kassite or 3rd dynasty that ruled over Babylon, was responsible for one of the most extensive and widesprea ...

(died c. 1375 BC) and was abandoned after the fall of the Kassite dynasty (c. 1155 BC). The city was of such importance that it appeared on toponym lists in the funerary temple of the Egyptian pharaoh,

Amenophis III Amenhotep III ( egy, jmn-ḥtp(.w), ''Amānəḥūtpū'' , "Amun is Satisfied"; Hellenized as Amenophis III), also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent or Amenhotep the Great, was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different ...

(c. 1351 BC) at Kom el-Hettan”. The prefix ''Dur'' is an

Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to: * Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire * Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language * Akkadian literature, literature in this language * Akkadian cuneiform Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic ...

term meaning "fortress of", while the Kassite royal name ''Kurigalzu'' is believed to have meant "shepherd of the Kassites". The tradition of naming new towns Dur dates back to the Old Babylonian period with an example being Dūr-Ammī-ditāna. The city contained a

ziggurat A ziggurat (; Cuneiform: 𒅆𒂍𒉪, Akkadian: ', D-stem of ' 'to protrude, to build high', cognate with other Semitic languages like Hebrew ''zaqar'' (זָקַר) 'protrude') is a type of massive structure built in ancient Mesopotamia. It has ...

and temples dedicated to

Mesopotamian gods Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore ''melam'', an ambiguous substa ...

, as well as a royal palace which covered 420,000 square meters. The ziggurat at Aqar Quf, standing to a height of about , has been a very visible ancient monument for centuries. For camel caravans and modern road traffic, the ziggurat has served as a signal of the near approach to Baghdad. Because of Aqar Quf's easy accessibility and close proximity to the city of Baghdad, it has been one of Iraq's most visited and best-known sites. The ziggurat was often confused with the

Tower of Babel The Tower of Babel ( he, , ''Mīgdal Bāḇel'') narrative in Genesis 11:1–9 is an origin myth meant to explain why the world's peoples speak different languages. According to the story, a united human race speaking a single language and mi ...

by Western visitors to the area from the 17th century onwards.

History

The town of Dur Kurigalzu was founded by the

King

in the early 14th century BC and is situated along an east–west-trending limestone ridge between the

Euphrates The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...

and

rivers. Until the last century, the adjacent Aqar Quf depression would have been inundated with flood water part of the year. This site had access to fresh water from the

by means of the Isa Canal, known as the Patti-Enlil Canal in ancient times. The city functioned as the capital of

Babylonia Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c ...

during the reign of Kurigalzu, and either as the capital or at least an important city during the period after.T. Clayden, Kurigalzu I and the Restoration of Babylonia, Iraq, vol. 58, pp. 109-121, 1996 It was occupied continuously until the fall of the Kassite Dynasty in the 12th century BC when it was largely abandoned. The temple area, at least, was known to be active in the 7th century BC and in the

Neo-Babylonian The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC and be ...

period. Up until recently (mostly between the 9th and 14th centuries AD), there have been smaller occupations at parts of Aqar Quf, with areas of the site being used for burials and for Arab settlement.

Ziggurat

The Ziggurat of Dur-Kurigalzu, built in the early 14th century BC by Kurigalzu I, is located in the city's western area and is devoted to the chief Babylonian God

Enlil Enlil, , "Lord f theWind" later known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Ba ...

, who Sumerians believed to govern over wind, air, earth, and storm.T. Clayden,Dur-Kurigalzu: New Perspectives, Volume 2 Kardunias. Babylonia under the Kassites 2. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2017. The ziggurat's base measures 69m x 67m and it was constructed of large, well-tempered liben with many stamped baked bricks incorporated into the structure, bearing the name of Kurigalzu and his dedication of the temple E-U-GAL to

.Taha Baqir, Iraq Government Excavations at 'Aqar Quf, 1942-1943. Iraq Supplement. London, pp. 1-16, 1944 Facing the front, the Ziggurat can be approached from three main staircases leading up to the first level. Standing upright on the level withholds a terraced compound, built by layers of receding levels. At its core, there are consistent sun-dried square bricks with reed mats placed in every seven layers of brick to help hold the structure altogether. An axial flight of steps was discovered running outwards from the center of the side of the ziggurat towards the temple-complex and was built of solid kiln-baked brick set in bitumen.Taha Baqir, Iraq Government Excavations at 'Aqar Quf: Second Interim Report, 1943 - 1944. Iraq Supplement, pp. 1-15. London, 1945

Archaeology

In Kassite times the area was defined by a large wall that enclosed about . The wall, originally built by Kurigalzu I, was later rebuilt by

Kurigalzu II Kurigalzu II (c. 1332–1308 BC short chronology) was the 22nd king of the Kassite or 3rd dynasty that ruled over Babylon. In more than twelve inscriptions, Kurigalzu names Burna-Buriaš II as his father. Kurigalzu II was possibly placed on th ...

(c. 1332—1308 BC). The site has several defined areas, Mound A (100 meters south of the ziggurat), Tell Ahmar, Tell Abu Shijar, Tell al-Abyad, and a private housing area. The main elements, ziggurat, palaces, etc are all within the city wall. The currently known structures of the site consist of nine temples (T1 to T9), with T1 being the ziggurat and associated temple to Enlil, three palaces (P1 to T3), and five housing areas (H1 to H5) The site was visited by

Bengt Bengtsson Oxenstierna Bengt Bengtsson Oxenstierna af Eka och Lindö, Baron of Eka and Lindö (1591 at Frösvik near Rydbo – 1643 in Riga, Swedish Livonia), in non-contemporary sources sometimes referred to as Resare-Bengt ''("Bengt the Traveller")'', was a Swedish d ...

in 1616. Agar Quf first appeared on a modern map by Edward Ives in 1773. The site was then described by

Claudius James Rich Claudius James Rich (28 March 1787 – 5 October 1821) was a British Assyriologist, business agent, traveller and antiquarian scholar. Biography Rich was born near Dijon "of a good family", but passed his childhood at Bristol. Early on, he deve ...

in 1811. Aqar Quf (referred to then as Akerkuf, Agger Koof, or Akar-kuf) was visited and examined in 1837 by

Francis Rawdon Chesney Francis Rawdon Chesney (16 March 1789 – 30 January 1872) was a British general and explorer. Life He was a son of Captain Alexander Chesney, an Irishman of Scottish descent who, having emigrated to South Carolina in 1772, served under Lo ...

. The name of Dur-Kurigalzu was identified by Henry Rawlinson in the mid-19th century. Excavations were conducted from 1942 through 1945, by

Taha Baqir Taha Baqir ( ar, طه باقر ') (born 1912 in Babylon, Ottoman Iraq – 28 February 1984) was an Iraqi Assyriologist, author, cuneiformist, linguist, historian, and former curator of the National Museum of Iraq. Baqir is considered one of Iraq' ...

and

Seton Lloyd Seton Howard Frederick Lloyd, CBE (30 May 1902, Birmingham, England – 7 January 1996, Faringdon, England), was an English archaeologist. He was President of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, Director of the British Institute of Archaeo ...

in a joint excavation by the Iraqi Directorate-General of Antiquities and the British School of Archaeology in Iraq. Over 100 cuneiform tablets of the Kassite period were recovered, now in the

Iraq Museum The Iraq Museum ( ar, المتحف العراقي) is the national museum of Iraq, located in Baghdad. It is sometimes informally called the National Museum of Iraq, a recent phenomenon influenced by other nations' naming of their national museum ...

. A

kudurru A kudurru was a type of stone document used as a boundary stone and as a record of land grants to vassals by the Kassites and later dynasties in ancient Babylonia between the 16th and 7th centuries BC. The original kudurru would typically be stor ...

(IM 49991) dated to year five of Kassite ruler Nazi-Maruttash was also found. During the excavation, 5 fragments of a larger-than-life-size statue were discovered. They contain the longest yet found Kassite Sumerian inscriptions. A baked brick pavement (T5) around two kilometers northwest of Tell al-Abyad was found to be covered with hundreds of broken terracotta figurines dedicated to the god Gula. Bricks found in situ were dated to the reign of Kassite ruler Nazi-Maruttash. The excavations included the ziggurat, three temples, and part of the palace of Dur-Kurigalzu II. 3d model reconstruction by Mazzllee

In the early 1960s and from 1968 to 1975 the Iraqi Directorate-General of Antiquities continued to do some excavation around the ziggurat as part of a restoration project under

Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein ( ; ar, صدام حسين, Ṣaddām Ḥusayn; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolutio ...

The three excavated areas are the mound of Aqar Quf (including the ziggurat and large temple), a public building (approximately to the west), and Tell al-Abyad where a large palace was partially uncovered (about to the south-west). Several burned cuneiform tables dated to the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I were found there. As part of a temple restoration a pottery jar was found containing 220 Islamic silver

dirhem The dirham, dirhem or dirhm ( ar, درهم) is a silver unit of currency historically and currently used by several Arab and Arab influenced states. The term has also been used as a related unit of mass. Unit of mass The dirham was a un ...

coins from the Ilkhanid period. Excavations continued between 1977 and 1980, led by Suphi Anwar Rashid and Amire al-Khayyat, in the temple area. Paving and wall bricks dedicated to Enlil and Ninlil were found as well as a Kassite double jar burial, an inscribed eyestone for Enlil dedicated by Kurigalzu, and two female figurines in ivory. Another area within Dur-Kurigalzu, Tell Abu Shijar, was excavated by Iraqi archaeologists in 1992, 1993, and 2001 finding mainly late Kassite and lesser Parthian/Sassanian remains. Painted plaster wall fragments, similar to those found at Tell al-Abyad, were recovered as well as a worn cylinder seal and thirteen cuneiform clay tablets. The tablets were unread (and may be lost) but 3 were noted to have dates of the Kassite king

Nazi-Maruttash Nazi-Maruttaš, typically inscribed ''Na-zi-Ma-ru-ut-ta-aš'' or m''Na-zi-Múru-taš'', ''Maruttaš'' (a Kassite god synonymous with Ninurta) ''protects him'', was a Kassite king of Babylon c. 1307–1282 BC (short chronology) and self-proclaim ...

(1307—1282 BC). The site lies 1 kilometer west of the ziggurat and 500 meters southwest of Tell al-Abyad being about 6 meters in height with only the central 120-meter by 150-meter mound undisturbed by modern activity. In the mid-1990s an Italian team conducted a photogrammatic survey of the ziggurrat.

Wall Paintings at ''Tell al-Abyad''

Some of the most significant finds of Kassite period artwork are found in the main palatial complex (P1) and its surrounding complexes (located at ''Tell al-Abyad'') of Dur-Kurigalzu about 1000 meters northwest of the main ziggurat. The recurring motifs of the artwork found on all four levels of the palatial complex are representational and contain human processional scenes and clusters of fruit; there are also geometric designs that contain parallel bands, chevrons, and rosettes. The processional scenes date to the time of the last Kassite king Marduk-apla-iddina I. The representational motif of human figures is also some of the only surviving instances of human representation in artwork from the Kassite period and gives an indication of the artistic technique utilized at the time. The majority of large, upright wall paintings can be found in the internal rooms of the palace that would have functioned as reception or public rooms. The highest concentration of this wall painting type can be found in Unit H sector on Level II named also ‘PaintedPalace’, dating to the reign of Kaštiliaš IV. Another wall painting type is also found along recesses of the courtyards and between rooms and contains the same motifs of floral and geometric designs and processional scenes that Yoko Tomabechi states function to 'brighten the doorways and the inner rooms'. The colours utilised in these paintings are 'red, cobalt-blue, dark-blue, yellow, white and black'. Much of the palatial complex and its artwork inside remain unexcavated and need further exploration.

The Temples

At the base of the ziggurat steps, is a pavement that leads to one of the four excavated temples, E-U-GAL. This would also continue to lead into a court and several smaller rooms adjoining it. The other three temples are E-GASAN-AN-TA-GAL, E-SAG-DINGIR-RI-E-NE, and E-SAG-DINGIR-E-NE. King Kurigalzu appears to have built all these temples under great patronage. The entire complex mostly has liben walls that are thickly covered with plaster and may bear traces of fire, which are thought to reflect attempts in destroying the site in the past.

E-U-GAL

E-U-GAL, which is likely to mean “The House of the Great Lord,” is believed to be the most important temple of Dur Kurigalzu. This name could also refer to the entire temple complex or the entire site as the text was engraved into bricks in all three temples and in the ziggurat.

E-GASAN-AN-TA-GAL

3-D reconstruction of Dur-Kurigalzu of the temple complex

The name of the temple is a combination of “The House of the Lady” and words meaning “high”, “firm”, or “great”. Inside this temple is a small staircase that leads up to an altar, subsidiary courts, and a room that appears to be the kitchen where a raised rectangular compartment was excavated and assumed to be an oven.

The Tower

Between E-GASAN-AN-TA-GAL and E-U-GAL is a massive ruin, excavated to be 17 meters tall, that could be the foundation of a tower that was weathered away by floods. This structure was also made with liben and faced with baked bricks.

Current status

For 16 seasons in the 1960s and 1970s the Iraqi government did conservation and restoration work at the site. Unfortunately the modern restoration work resulted in significant damage to the original construction it overlaid as it did at Babylon. Aqar Quf is currently suffering environmental damage and urban encroachment. Natural factors like rain and standing groundwater have contributed to the erosion of the ziggurat and damage to the ruins, especially along the southwest side. As a result of this damage, the ziggurat is in danger of further deterioration as well as collapse if preventive measures are not taken. The suburbs and industrial areas of Baghdad also continue developing near the site. Currently, there is an encroachment of modern construction along some stretches of the enclosure wall. There is also agricultural encroachment along the enclosure wall, especially on the southwest side. Iraqi Army maneuvers, involving trenches, did some damage to the site in the 1980s. The ziggurat suffered damage as a result of the

U.S. invasion of Iraq The 2003 invasion of Iraq was a United States-led invasion of the Republic of Iraq and the first stage of the Iraq War. The invasion phase began on 19 March 2003 (air) and 20 March 2003 (ground) and lasted just over one month, including 26 ...

when the site was abandoned and looted during the security breakdown and chaos that followed the U.S. military's overthrow of Saddam Hussein. Little is left of the modern administration building, museum, event stage, and restaurant that once served the picnickers and students who visited the site before the war. Local government officials and the U.S. military charged with security in the area have been working to create a renovation plan. Since mid-2008, local officials have drafted plans to rebuild the historic site, but support from the Iraq Ministry of History and Ruins has not materialized.

Gallery

The following images represent the status of Aqar-Quf and its architectural remains as of December 29, 2021. File:One of the modern buildings at Dur-Kurigalzu, (Aqar-Quf), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021. It seems to be built before the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003; it had been plundered and not restored.jpg, One of the modern buildings at Dur-Kurigalzu, plundered and not restored. Note the damaged outdoor park benches and umberalls File:10. Dur-Kurigalzu (Aqar-Quf), Kassite era, western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021. Part of the so-called "temple complex" appears.jpg, Ruins adjacent to the modernly reconstructed eastern part of the temple complex File:2. Dur-Kurigalzu (Aqar-Quf), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021. Part of the Kassite era ziggurat appears on the right.jpg, Scattered bricks near the north-east side of the ziggurat File:2. One of the areas adjacent to the Kassite era ziggurat at Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021. Note the floor tiles.jpg, Tiles near the south-west side of the ziggurat File:70. Interior, one of the Kassite-era temples at the so-called "temple complex", Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), in western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021. The ziggurat appears in the background.jpg, The courtyard of Enlil temple (E-U-GAL), the ziggurat is seen in the background File:Part of the reconstructed Kassite era temple complex at Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021.jpg, Ninlil temple (E-GASAN-AN-TA-GAL) File:15. Interior, one of the Kassite-era temples at the so-called "temple complex", Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), in western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021.jpg, The courtyard of Ninurta temple (E-SAG-DINGIR-RI-E-NE) File:7. Upper surface. The remains of the Kassite ziggurat at Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 29, 2021.jpg, Level one of the ziggurat and its remaining core File:1. Layers of reed reinforcement, detail of the core of the Kassite-era ziggurat at Dur-Kurigalzu (Aqar-Quf), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 2021.jpg, Layers of reed reinforcement, detail of the core of the ziggurat File:2. The reconstructed platform (right) before the remains of the ziggurat (not shown; shooting from one of the stairways of the ziggurat) at Aqar-Quf (Dur-Kurigalzu), western Baghdad, Iraq. December 2021.jpg, The reconstructed "platform" (right) before the axial stairway of the ziggurat. The temple complex appear

References

External links

Site photographs at Oxford
* ttp://globalheritagefund.org Global Heritage Fund has a page for Agar Quf {{Authority control Baghdad Governorate Archaeological sites in Iraq Kassites Kassite cities Former populated places in Iraq Tells (archaeology) Ziggurats