'' Dominium mundi '' is an idea of universal dominion developed in the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...

. Inspired by the memory of the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

, ''dominium mundi'' implied the recognition of one supreme authority, which generated a prolonged political and spiritual struggle between imperial and ecclesiastical power. This struggle can be said to have begun with the

Investiture Controversy The Investiture Controversy, also called Investiture Contest (German: ''Investiturstreit''; ), was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops ( investiture) and abbots of mona ...

, and was mainly embodied by the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...

and

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...

, which elevated the

emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...

and

Pope The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...

, respectively, to the status of supreme ruler. The idea of universal dominion divided

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

into the warring faction of

Guelphs and Ghibellines The Guelphs and Ghibellines (, , ; it, guelfi e ghibellini ) were factions supporting the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, respectively, in the Italian city-states of Central Italy and Northern Italy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, r ...

. Guelphs supported the Church, while the Ghibellines supported the Empire. After two hundred years of division during the 12th and 13th centuries, neither one of the powers had prevailed, due to their mutual dependency and the rise of the powerful and practically independent reigns of Church and the State. The idea of '' dominium mundi '' did not reappear in its original form, despite the fact that both '' universal powers'' subsisted.

The imperial idea

Height and sustenance

At the time of the reign of

Frederick I Frederick I may refer to: * Frederick of Utrecht or Frederick I (815/16–834/38), Bishop of Utrecht. * Frederick I, Duke of Upper Lorraine (942–978) * Frederick I, Duke of Swabia (1050–1105) * Frederick I, Count of Zoll ...

(1152-1190), the imperial idea had already reached maturity. Its continuity was emphasized in

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

from the Roman times, through the

Carolingian Empire The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the L ...

link. In fact, Frederick I spoke about

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first E ...

as the model of emperors and had him canonized in 1165 without the requirements. The thesis on the public sovereignty that

Roman law Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the '' Corpus Juris Civilis'' (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor J ...

(rediscovered by the European jurists and politicians in the twelfth century) contains were also used in favor of the imperial ideas. It was of them that it was deduced the unicity and the universal character of the

, considered "a project of worldwide dominion" that symbolizes the whole period. Given these premises, it was believed in the court of Frederick I that the Empire, established directly by divine will as a form of political organization of

humanity Humanity most commonly refers to: * Humankind the total population of humans * Humanity (virtue) Humanity may also refer to: Literature * ''Humanity'' (journal), an academic journal that focuses on human rights * ''Humanity: A Moral History of t ...

, was sacred. The expression ''Sacrum Imperium'' appears for the first time in a document of 1157. In a different plane, it cannot be forgotten that the 12th century saw the beginning of the revitalization of the monarchic power over

feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structu ...

, after several centuries of deep decay of the royal authority. The Empire did not stay at the margin of this evolution, recovering strongly its prestige. Nevertheless, it was badly managed, causing important consequences for the political future of the territories of

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...

and

. The reconstruction of the monarchies also went against the projected ''Dominium Mundi''. Because of this, Frederick I, as well as his son and successor Henry VI, tried to conciliate both events imagining a universal temporal empire, at whose front was an emperor with supreme authority, superior to the power of various kings, called "régulos" or "local kings". This supreme authority seemed necessary, because it was believed that the Empire was the way to maintain unity in Christianity in preparation for the

end times Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that nega ...

. Without considering this

eschatological Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that nega ...

and messianic element, one cannot correctly understand what the Empire meant for the men of the time, in particular for emperor Frederick I.

The vision of the Church

The foundations of the ecclesiastical vision can be exemplified by these sources: * According to

Pope Alexander III Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – 30 August 1181), born Roland ( it, Rolando), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 September 1159 until his death in 1181. A native of Siena, Alexander became pope after a con ...

: "The unicity of the creation also implies the unicity of the supreme authority on all the creatures. This had to belong to the

because of the superiority of his spiritual power and because the eternal salvation, that he promoted, was the prime social aim. " * According to '' Summa Coloniensis'' (1170 text): "The Pope is the true emperor, the emperor being his effective vicar." (''imperator Papa verus est, imperator est vicarius eius''). * According to Geroh de Reichersberg and the great canon lawyers like

Gratian Gratian (; la, Gratianus; 18 April 359 – 25 August 383) was emperor of the Western Roman Empire from 367 to 383. The eldest son of Valentinian I, Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers and w ...

and

Huguccio Huguccio (Hugh of Pisa, Uguccio) (c. 1140- died 1210) was an Italian canon lawyer. Biography Huguccio studied at Bologna, probably under Gandolphus, and taught canon law in the same city, perhaps in the school connected with the monastery of ...

: "The lay temporary power had independent operation, being able to choose those who exerted it either by means of election or inheritance, as well as to develop its own administrative means without interferences. The Pope conserved, nevertheless, a supreme authority, but he could only exert it to sanction or to authenticate the political acts, not to stop or modify them nor to directly act, except for moral or religious reasons (''ratione peccati'': "because of sins") or when it was necessary to dissolve an issue for which no other power of the world was authorized."

Imperial and ecclesiastical law in the 12th and 13th centuries

Roman law

In the 12th and 13th centuries the rediscovery of old Roman law and the ''ordenación'' of the

canon law Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is t ...

sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the

western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.

. This deeply influenced the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate. The Roman law known by the medieval Europe was exclusively the compilation made by the emperor

Justinian Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized '' renova ...

in the 6th century, which consists of several differentiated parts: # The '' Digest '' or '' Pandectas'', compendium of jurisprudence. # The ''Institutions'' or a manual of study which, in part, summarizes the previous one. # The "Justinian Code", that reunites all the constitutions by the emperors starting from the times of

Hadrian Hadrian (; la, Caesar Trâiānus Hadriānus ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. He was born in Italica (close to modern Santiponce in Spain), a Roman ''municipium'' founded by Italic settlers in Hispania ...

. # The ''Novels'', or imperial constitutions after the year 53. Of all these, the one of greatest influence in the medieval rediscovery was the ''Digest''. The Justinian work would, starting in the 16th century, be known as ''

Corpus Iuris Civilis The ''Corpus Juris'' (or ''Iuris'') ''Civilis'' ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor. It is also sometimes referred ...

'', but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it. The renaissance in Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in

Bologna Bologna (, , ; egl, label= Emilian, Bulåggna ; lat, Bononia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different na ...

, a city in the Italian

Romagna Romagna ( rgn, Rumâgna) is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna, North Italy. Traditionally, it is limited by the Apennines to the south-west, the Adriatic to th ...

. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-Germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old

. The teachers of this most famous "school of Bologna" acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of glosses or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed

philological Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as t ...

command of

Greek language Greek ( el, label= Modern Greek, Ελληνικά, Elliniká, ; grc, Ἑλληνική, Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Italy ( Calabria and Salento), souther ...

and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich

casuistry In ethics, casuistry ( ) is a process of reasoning that seeks to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending theoretical rules from a particular case, and reapplying those rules to new instances. This method occurs in applied ethics and ju ...

that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due to Irnerius at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were Hugo de Porta Ravennate, Bulgarus,

Jacobus de Boragine Jacobus de Boragine was one of the Glossators, and Four Doctors of Bologna. Also known as Jacobus, he was born in the early 12th century and was an Italians, Italian lawyer, one of four students of Irnerius called the ''Quattuor Doctores'', altho ...

and Martinus Gosia, called "the four doctors" because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were '' Ghibellines'' (supported the idea of the

Empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...

being over the pontificate) and in favor of

, of whom they were contemporary.

Canon law

Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons was

Graciano Graciano is a Spanish red wine grape that is grown primarily in Rioja. The vine produces a low yield that are normally harvested in late October. The wine produced is characterized by its deep red color, strong aroma and ability to age w ...

, a bolognian

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...

teacher, who wrote ca. 1140 his ''Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons'', commonly called ''Decree''. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the

pontiff A pontiff (from Latin ''pontifex'') was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion, the College of Pontiffs."Pontifex". "Oxford English Dictionary", March 2007 The term "pontiff" was l ...

s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of ''litteras decretals'' or "

decretal Decretals ( la, litterae decretales) are letters of a pope that formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church.McGurk. ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms''. p. 10 They are generally given in answer to consultations but are sometimes ...

s", whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars. The first compilation was made by Raymond of Peñafort, a Dominican

Catalan Catalan may refer to: Catalonia From, or related to Catalonia: * Catalan language, a Romance language * Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia Places * 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...

, and is named ''

Gregory IX Pope Gregory IX ( la, Gregorius IX; born Ugolino di Conti; c. 1145 or before 1170 – 22 August 1241) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 March 1227 until his death in 1241. He is known for issuing the '' Decre ...

Decretals''; it reunites the decretals appeared between 1154 and 1234 and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until 1298, was known '' Liber sextus'' ("Sixth book"). In the 14th century new compilations were made, ''Clementines'', and the '' Extravagantes'', of

John XXII Pope John XXII ( la, Ioannes PP. XXII; 1244 – 4 December 1334), born Jacques Duèze (or d'Euse), was head of the Catholic Church from 7 August 1316 to his death in December 1334. He was the second and longest-reigning Avignon Pope, elected by ...

and ''Comunas''. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of ''Corpus iuris canonici''. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi (

Pope Innocent IV Pope Innocent IV ( la, Innocentius IV; – 7 December 1254), born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 June 1243 to his death in 1254. Fieschi was born in Genoa and studied at the universitie ...

). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by Bartholomew de Brescia, in the 12th century, and also by Juan the Teutónico, in the 13th century, of Hugh of Pisa and

Henry of Segusio Henry of Segusio, usually called Hostiensis, (c. 1200 – 6 or 7 November 1271) was an Italian canonist of the thirteenth century, born at Susa (Segusio), in the ancient Diocese of Turin. He died at Lyon. Life He undertook the study of Roman law ...

Development of the conflict

The diet of Besançon and the first differences

On his return from

, after being crowned Holy Roman Emperor by

Pope Adrian IV Pope Adrian IV ( la, Adrianus IV; born Nicholas Breakspear (or Brekespear); 1 September 1159, also Hadrian IV), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 4 December 1154 to his death in 1159. He is the only Englishman t ...

, Frederick I summoned a diet in Besançon (1157), with object to reform the political statute of his kingdom in

Arles Arles (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Arle ; Classical la, Arelate) is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province ...

. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future

, Rolando Bandinelli. The complaint between theocrats and '' '' avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to the "benefits" that

Pontiff A pontiff (from Latin ''pontifex'') was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion, the College of Pontiffs."Pontifex". "Oxford English Dictionary", March 2007 The term "pontiff" was l ...

granted to

. The word "benefit", in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits or

fiefs A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form ...

from their

lord Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power (social and political), power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the Peerage ...

. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a "benefit" of the

. Adrian IV, the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Frederick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not

fiefdom A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of f ...

s. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat as Alexander III, it was as a true restorer of

papal authority The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...

(in the spirit of

Pope Gregory VII Pope Gregory VII ( la, Gregorius VII; 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana ( it, Ildebrando di Soana), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He is venerated as a saint ...

). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of Gregory VII, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of the

Roman Law Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the '' Corpus Juris Civilis'' (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor J ...

, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the "trinitarian society" (politicians, the military and agriculturists).

Frederick I against Alexander III

In 1158 took place the second travels imperial to

. Shortly after, the death of Adrian IV opened a successory crisis in the pontificate. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture for the confrontation between

and

takes place. Frederick tried to subjugate the Lombard cities.

Milan Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city ...

was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and forced it to capitulate, preserving its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Frederick reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of

and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old "entente" with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence.

Pope and antipope

When Adrian IV died, the 24 cardinals in favor of opposing the dominion of Frederick I in Italy chose

, while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Frederick to attempt a conciliation in

Pavia Pavia (, , , ; la, Ticinum; Medieval Latin: ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy in northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was the ...

(January 1160), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals of The Holy See, and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor.

again revolted in 1161, but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide for

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

. Frederick won, but Alexander was the

recognized by

, except for the Empire, and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular in

, where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized authoritarian government to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.

Culmination of the imperial intervention

The death of Victor IV also deprived Frederick of an important support, because

antipope An antipope ( la, antipapa) is a person who makes a significant and substantial attempt to occupy the position of Bishop of Rome and leader of the Catholic Church in opposition to the legitimately elected pope. At times between the 3rd and mi ...

s that made choose to happen to him (

Paschal III Antipope Paschal III (or Paschal III) () was a 12th-century clergyman who, from 1164 to 1168, was the second antipope to challenge the reign of Pope Alexander III. He had previously served as Cardinal of St. Maria. Biography Born Guido of Crem ...

Callixtus III Pope Callixtus III ( it, Callisto III, va, Calixt III, es, Calixto III; 31 December 1378 – 6 August 1458), born Alfonso de Borgia ( va, Alfons de Borja), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 April 1455 to hi ...

) did not have possible justification nor were recognized willingly by his own German clergy, since the

Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...

took advantage of the circumstances to intervene himself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of "

": In 1165, synod of

Würzburg Würzburg (; Main-Franconian: ) is a city in the region of Franconia in the north of the German state of Bavaria. Würzburg is the administrative seat of the ''Regierungsbezirk'' Lower Franconia. It spans the banks of the Main River. Würzburg ...

and

Canonization Canonization is the declaration of a deceased person as an officially recognized saint, specifically, the official act of a Christian communion declaring a person worthy of public veneration and entering their name in the canon catalogue of ...

was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with Alexander III forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances in

as well as in other countries. Great German

nobles Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The character ...

made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Frederick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king

Henry II of England Henry II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189), also known as Henry Curtmantle (french: link=no, Court-manteau), Henry FitzEmpress, or Henry Plantagenet, was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189, and as such, was the first Angevin kin ...

and the

Archbishop of Canterbury The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. The current archbishop is Just ...

Thomas Becket Thomas Becket (), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London and later Thomas à Becket (21 December 1119 or 1120 – 29 December 1170), was an English nobleman who served as Lord Chancellor from 1155 to 1162, and the ...

Pontificate and Empire at the time of Frederick I

1152: Frederick succeeds

Conrad III Conrad III (german: Konrad; it, Corrado; 1093 or 1094 – 15 February 1152) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was from 1116 to 1120 Duke of Franconia, from 1127 to 1135 anti-king of his predecessor Lothair III and from 1138 until his death in 1152 ...

. First conflict with the

. The Scandinavian churches are separated from

Hamburg Hamburg (, ; nds, label=Hamburg German, Low Saxon, Hamborg ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (german: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg; nds, label=Low Saxon, Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg),. is the List of cities in Germany by popul ...

. 1153:

Treaty of Constance The Peace of Constance (25 June 1183) was a privilege granted by Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, and his son and co-ruler, Henry VI, King of the Romans, to the members of the Lombard League to end the state of rebellion (war) that had been ong ...

between Frederick and Eugene III. 1154: Frederick in

; decree of Roncaglia. Violence against the Italian communes. Adrian IV, the Pope. 1155: Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of

Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...

and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes

Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...

Henry the Lion Henry the Lion (german: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129/1131 – 6 August 1195) was a member of the Welf dynasty who ruled as the duke of Saxony and Bavaria from 1142 and 1156, respectively, until 1180. Henry was one of the most powerful German p ...

. Alliance between Adrian IV and

William I of Sicily William I (1120 or 1121May 7, 1166), called the Bad or the Wicked ( scn, Gugghiermu lu Malu), was the second king of Sicily, ruling from his father's death in 1154 to his own in 1166. He was the fourth son of Roger II and Elvira of Castile. Wil ...

. Concordato de Benevento.

Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...

, independent countship. 1157: Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between

and the Pope. 1158: Shaken and punishment of

. Diet of Roncaglia. 1159: New revolt of Milan. Siege of

Crema, Italy Crema (; Cremasco: ) is a city and '' comune'' in the province of Cremona, in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is built along the river Serio at from Cremona. It is also the seat of the Catholic Bishop of Crema, who gave the title ...

. Death of Adrian IV. Alexander III, Pope, and Victor IV,

. 1160: Storming and destruction of Crema. Beginning of the siege of Milan. Assembly of Pavia. 1162: Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Frederick with

Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the ci ...

and

Genoa Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of ...

against

. Project of interview between Frederick and

Louis VII of France Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger, or the Young (french: link=no, le Jeune), was King of the Franks from 1137 to 1180. He was the son and successor of King Louis VI (hence the epithet "the Young") and married Duchess ...

to end the schism.

, archbishop of Canterbury. 1162 - 1165: The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III. 1163: Council of Tours. 1164:

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

forms the so-called League of Verona against Frederick. Death of the antipope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him. 1165: Diet of Würzburg. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III.

breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III. 1167: Frederick seizes Rome. Formation of Lombard League, that is allied to the one of Verona. 1168: Foundation of

Alessandria Alessandria (; pms, Lissandria ) is a city and ''comune'' in Piedmont, Italy, and the capital of the Province of Alessandria. The city is sited on the alluvial plain between the Tanaro and the Bormida rivers, about east of Turin. Alessandri ...

in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Death of

. 1170: Lombard League is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor. 1174 - 1175: Siege of

by Frederick. 1175: Truce of Montebello. 1176: Frederick is defeated at the

Battle of Legnano The Battle of Legnano was a battle between the imperial army of Frederick Barbarossa and the troops of the Lombard League on May 29, 1176, near the town of Legnano in present-day Lombardy, in Italy. Although the presence of the enemy nearby w ...

by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with Pope Alexander III. 1177: Peace of

. 1179: Rupture between the emperor and

. I conciliate of Letrán: reorganization of the papal election. 1180: War against Henry the Lion. 1181: Reconciliation between Frederick and Henry the Lion. Death of Alexander III. 1183: Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza. 1184: Diet of

Mainz Mainz () is the capital and largest city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Mainz is on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite to the place that the Main joins the Rhine. Downstream of the confluence, the Rhine flows to the north-west, with Ma ...

: wedding of Henry and

Constance of Sicily Constance I ( it, Costanza; 2 November 1154 – 27 November 1198) was reigning Queen of Sicily from 1194–98, jointly with her spouse from 1194 to 1197, and with her infant son Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1198, as the heiress of the ...

. Diet of Verona. 1185: Alliance between Frederick and Milan. 1186: Rupture between Urban and Frederick. Assembly of Gelnhausen. 1188: Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune. 1189: Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of

William II of Sicily William II (December 115311 November 1189), called the Good, was king of Sicily from 1166 to 1189. From surviving sources William's character is indistinct. Lacking in military enterprise, secluded and pleasure-loving, he seldom emerged from his ...

; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him

Enrique IV Henry IV of Castile ( Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became ...

. 1190:

Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt by three European monarchs of Western Christianity ( Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor) to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by ...

: death of Frederick in

Asia Minor Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...

Involved Personages

(in chronological order)

Imperial

Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (german: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 – 7 August 1106) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 to 1105, King of Germany from 1054 to 1105, King of Italy and Burgundy from 1056 to 1105, and Duke of Bavaria from 1052 to 1054. He was the ...

Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (german: Heinrich V.; probably 11 August 1081 or 1086 – 23 May 1125, in Utrecht) was King of Germany (from 1099 to 1125) and Holy Roman Emperor (from 1111 to 1125), as the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. He was made co-r ...

Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (german: link=no, Friedrich I, it, Federico I), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt ...

Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI (German: ''Heinrich VI.''; November 1165 – 28 September 1197), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was King of Germany ( King of the Romans) from 1169 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 until his death. From 1194 he was also King of ...

Papal

Pope Urban II Pope Urban II ( la, Urbanus II; – 29 July 1099), otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening th ...

* Pope Paschal II *

Pope Urban III Pope Urban III ( la, Urbanus III; died 20 October 1187), born Uberto Crivelli, reigned from 25 November 1185 to his death in 1187. Early career Crivelli was born in Cuggiono, Italy as the son of Guala Crivelli and had four brothers: Pietro, ...

References

* ''Naissance of l'esprit laïque au déclin du Moyen Āge '', 2nd ed., Paris-Lovaina, 1970 (Lagarde, G.). * '' Histoire du Christianisme, volume I VI. Temps d'épreuves '' (1274-1449), Paris, 1990 (Congourdeau, M.H.). * '' History of the political thought in the average Age '', Barcelona, 1992 (Ullmann, W.). {{ISBN, 0-14-055102-6 * '' the Papado. Brief history of pontified '', You settle, 2003 (Kalyan). * '' the Average Age '', volume X of the Collection of Universal History Salvat, 2005. Latin words and phrases Catholicism in the Middle Ages