Cosmetics in Ancient Rome
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Cosmetics Cosmetics are substances that are intended for application to the body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering appearance. They are mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either Natural product, natural source ...
, first used in
ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
for ritual purposes,An Ancient Roman Make-up Lesson
The History Channel. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
were part of
daily life Everyday life, daily life or routine life comprises the ways in which people typically act, think, and feel on a daily basis. Everyday life may be described as mundane, routine, natural, habitual, or normal. Human diurnality means most peop ...
. Some fashionable cosmetics, such as those imported from
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,
Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
and
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, were so expensive that the Lex Oppia tried to limit their use in 189 BCE.Stewart, Susan. ''Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World''. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 123-136. These "designer brands" spawned cheap knock-offs that were sold to poorer women.Ancient cosmetics brought to life
BBC News. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
Working-class women could afford the cheaper varieties, but may not have had the time (or
slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
) to apply the makeupCowell, F.R. ''Everyday Life in Ancient Rome''. London: Batsford, 1961, pp. 63-66. as the use of makeup was a time-consuming affair because cosmetics needed to be reapplied several times a day due to weather conditions and poor composition.Stewart, Susan. ''Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World''. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 9-13. Cosmetics were applied in private, usually in a small room where men did not enter. ''Cosmetae'', female slaves that adorned their mistresses, were especially praised for their skills.A Brief History of Cosmetics in Roman Times
Life in Italy. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
They would beautify their mistresses with ''cultus'', the
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
word encompassing
makeup Cosmetics are substances that are intended for application to the body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering appearance. They are mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either natural sources or created sy ...
,
perfume Perfume (, ) is a mixture of fragrance, fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), Fixative (perfumery), fixatives and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agre ...
and
jewelry Jewellery (or jewelry in American English) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment such as brooches, ring (jewellery), rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the ...
.Olson, Kelly. ''Dress and the Roman Woman''. New York: Routledge, 2008, pp. 61-70. Scent was also an important factor of beauty. Women who smelled good were presumed to be healthy. Due to the stench of many of the ingredients used in cosmetics at the time, women often drenched themselves in copious amounts of perfume.Stewart, Susan. ''Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World''. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 32-60.
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
women tended to avoid cosmetics with the belief that they should praise what God gave them. Some men, especially cross-dressers, did use cosmetics, although it was viewed as
effeminate Effeminacy or male femininity is the embodiment of feminine traits in boys or men, particularly those considered untypical of men or masculinity. These traits include roles, stereotypes, behaviors, and appearances that are socially associated wi ...
and improper.Angeloglou, Maggie. ''A History of Make-up''. London: Studio Vista, 1970, pp. 30-32 All cosmetic ingredients were also used as medicines to treat various ailments.
Lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
, although known to be poisonous, was still widely used.


Men's attitudes

Roman attitudes towards cosmetics evolved with the expansion of the empire. The assortment of cosmetics available increased as trade borders expanded and the resulting influx of wealth granted women additional slaves and time to spend on beauty. Ideas of beauty from conquered peoples, especially the
Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
and
Egyptians Egyptians (, ; , ; ) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian identity is closely tied to Geography of Egypt, geography. The population is concentrated in the Nile Valley, a small strip of cultivable land stretchi ...
, greatly influenced the Roman paradigm of beauty. Unlike their eastern trading partners however, the Romans felt that only the "preservation of beauty" was acceptable and not "unnatural embellishment". Despite exaggerating their makeup to make it appear in the poor lighting of the time, women still wanted to appear natural as a sign of chastity . Artificiality denoted a desire to be seductive, which made men question for whom exactly a woman was trying to appear attractive. In particular, Romans did not like unnatural colors on the eyes and overlined eyes. This was why men generally viewed the use of cosmetics as deceitful and manipulative.
Vestal Virgins In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins or Vestals (, singular ) were Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sacerdos, priestesses of Vesta (mythology), Vesta, virgin goddess of Rome's sacred hearth and its flame. The Vestals ...
did not do makeup because they were supposed to look holy and chaste. Postumia, one of the Vestal Virgins, defied this convention and was consequently accused of '' incestum''. The consensus was that women who used cosmetics in excess were immoral and deceptive and were practicing a form of
witchcraft Witchcraft is the use of Magic (supernatural), magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meanin ...
.
Juvenal Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ; 55–128), was a Roman poet. He is the author of the '' Satires'', a collection of satirical poems. The details of Juvenal's life are unclear, but references in his works to people f ...
wrote that "a woman buys scents and lotions with adultery in mind" and mocked the need for cosmetics, believing that they were ineffective. Use of perfumes was further looked down upon because they were thought to mask the smell of sex and alcohol. Seneca advised virtuous women to avoid cosmetics, as he believed their use to be a part of the decline of morality in Rome.
Stoics Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself. Of all the schools of ancient ...
were also against the use of cosmetics, as they were opposed to the usage of all man-made luxuries. Although there are no surviving texts written by women expounding the attitude of women towards cosmetics, their widespread use indicates that women accepted and enjoyed these products. Of all the surviving texts mentioning cosmetics (all written by men)
Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...
is alone in his approval of their use.
Archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
and
Haaretz ''Haaretz'' (; originally ''Ḥadshot Haaretz'' – , , ) is an List of newspapers in Israel, Israeli newspaper. It was founded in 1918, making it the longest running newspaper currently in print in Israel. The paper is published in Hebrew lan ...
columnist Terry Madenholm writes:
“Ovid is one of the few who understood the sexist social system of his time, portraying in his poems the expectations and criticisms women were facing. Where men shaped their identity through public engagements, women were defined through the prism of being wives and mothers. In a society where women had little liberty, makeup was undoubtedly a tool of expression and, perhaps, for some, even a means of voicing their individuality. Women who were using makeup were consciously or unconsciously assuming some control over their lives. They were projecting a self-constructed image that they wished to present to others.”


Skincare

Pure white skin, a demarcation of the aristocracy, was the most important feature of Roman beauty in women. Pale skin gave the impression of a higher social status. It was assumed that if a woman had pale skin, she stayed inside because she could afford slaves that would go outside and do labor she otherwise would have done. Women would often prepare their faces with beauty masks prior to applying makeup. One recipe called for the application of sweat from sheep's wool (lanolin) to the face before bedtime, emitting a stench often criticized by men.Balsdon, J.P.D.V. "Roman Women: Their History and Habits". London: Bodley Head, 1962, p. 261. Other ingredients included juice, seeds, horns, excrement, honey, plants, placenta, marrow, vinegar, bile, animal urine, sulfur, vinegar, eggs,
myrrh Myrrh (; from an unidentified ancient Semitic language, see '' § Etymology'') is a gum-resin extracted from a few small, thorny tree species of the '' Commiphora'' genus, belonging to the Burseraceae family. Myrrh resin has been used ...
, incense,
frankincense Frankincense, also known as olibanum (), is an Aroma compound, aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus ''Boswellia'' in the family (biology), family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality in ...
,
Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...

''The Art of Beauty''
ground oyster shells, onions with poultry fat, white lead, and barley with
vetch ''Vicia'' is a genus of over 240 species of flowering plants that are part of the legume family (Fabaceae), and which are commonly known as vetches. Member species are native to Europe, North America, South America, Asia and Africa. Some other g ...
. Bathing in donkey milk was an expensive treatment that would exfoliate the skin due to its
lactic acid Lactic acid is an organic acid. It has the molecular formula C3H6O3. It is white in the solid state and it is miscible with water. When in the dissolved state, it forms a colorless solution. Production includes both artificial synthesis as wel ...
component, and was used by wealthy women such as
Cleopatra VII Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (; The name Cleopatra is pronounced , or sometimes in both British and American English, see and respectively. Her name was pronounced in the Greek dialect of Egypt (see Koine Greek phonology). She was ...
and
Poppaea Sabina Poppaea Sabina (30 AD – 65 AD), also known as Ollia, was a Roman empress as the second wife of the emperor Nero. She had also been wife to the future emperor Otho. The historians of antiquity describe her as a beautiful woman who used intrig ...
. After their baths, they would then apply face whitener, such as chalk powder, white
marl Marl is an earthy material rich in carbonate minerals, Clay minerals, clays, and silt. When Lithification, hardened into rock, this becomes marlstone. It is formed in marine or freshwater environments, often through the activities of algae. M ...
, crocodile dung and white lead. The Roman recognition that
lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
was poisonous underscored their point of view on how important white skin was. Other ingredients used in whiteners included beeswax, olive oil, rosewater, saffron, animal fat, tin oxide, starch,Roman cosmetic secrets revealed
BBC News. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
rocket (
arugula Rocket, eruca, or arugula (''Eruca sativa'') is an edible annual plant in the family Brassicaceae used as a leaf vegetable for its fresh, tart, bitter, and peppery flavor. Its other common names include salad rocket and garden rocketFlora of NW ...
), cucumber, anise, mushrooms, honey, rose leaves, poppies, myrrh, frankincense, almond oil, rosewater, lily root, water parsnip and eggs. In Ovid's Art of Beauty, he gives a recipe and directions on how to make a face whitener. The Romans disliked wrinkles, freckles, sunspots, skin flakes and blemishes. To soften wrinkles, they used swans’ fat, asses’ milk,
gum Arabic Gum arabic (gum acacia, gum sudani, Senegal gum and by other names) () is a tree gum exuded by two species of '' Acacia sensu lato:'' '' Senegalia senegal,'' and '' Vachellia seyal.'' However, the term "gum arabic" does not indicate a partic ...
and bean-meal. Sores and freckles were treated with the ashes of snails. The Romans pasted soft leather patches of alum directly over blemishes to pretend that they were beauty marks. Criminals and
freedmen A freedman or freedwoman is a person who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed by manumission (granted freedom by their owners), emancipation (granted freedom as part of a larger group), or self- ...
used these leather patches, which came in both round and crescent shapes, to conceal brand marks. With the exception of hair on her head, hair was considered to be unattractive on a Roman woman. Consequently, women removed hair by either shaving, plucking, stripping using a
resin A resin is a solid or highly viscous liquid that can be converted into a polymer. Resins may be biological or synthetic in origin, but are typically harvested from plants. Resins are mixtures of organic compounds, predominantly terpenes. Commo ...
paste, or scraping with a pumice stone. Older women faced ridicule for their depilation because it was viewed primarily as preparation for sex.


Rouge

Although Romans esteemed pale faces, a light pink on the cheeks was considered to be attractive, signifying good health.
Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
wrote that too much rouge made a woman look showy, while
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman and Celtiberian poet born in Bilbilis, Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of '' Epigrams'', pu ...
mocked women, believing that rouge was in danger of melting in the sun. Sources of rouge included Tyrian vermillion, rose and poppy petals,
fucus ''Fucus'' is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world. Description and life cycle The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion ...
, red chalk, alkanet, and crocodile dung. Red ochre, a more expensive blush, was imported from
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and ground against a stone into powder. Despite knowledge that
cinnabar Cinnabar (; ), or cinnabarite (), also known as ''mercurblende'' is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of Mercury sulfide, mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining mercury (element), elemental mercury and is t ...
and red lead were poisonous, they were both still used extensively. Cheap alternatives included mulberry juice and wine dregs.


Eye makeup

Roman eye makeup relied on diverse materials and tools, serving not only decorative but also ritualistic and medicinal purposes. Archaeological and scientific findings show that women incorporated these practices into their daily lives, with ingredients and methods differing according to social class, region, and function. Despite the negative connotation against the practice from the literature, makeup was still a part of female identity, a taught behaviour and daily habit.


Materials and Application

Women commonly included eyeliner and eyebrow darkeners in their everyday grooming practices. These cosmetics often included stibium ( kohl), a substance composed of a wide range of ingredients. While the exact function of each component remains unclear, research suggests that kohl served purposes beyond appearance, including medicinal and ritual uses. The term kohl encompassed not only fine powders but also solid forms like sticks, stones, cakes, and pastes derived from those powders.
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
documented several recipes and noted that some cosmetics were even sold in tablet form. Kohl was traditionally applied to the eyelids and eyebrows in powdered form using a slender applicator made from materials such as wood, glass, bone, or ivory (Figure 1, 2). This stick was first moistened with water or perfumed oil, then dipped into the kohl powder. In modern practice, a rod is often swept horizontally across the closed eyelid. The rounded tips found on ancient kohl sticks suggest a comparable technique was used in antiquity. The elongated, narrow design of ancient kohl containers also appears suited to this method of application. Recent scientific analysis of eleven kohl containers revealed a wide range of chemical compositions, challenging earlier assumptions that kohl followed a standardized formula. One container, a double cosmetic flask from Diospolis Parva Cemetery, was likely used in a burial setting, possibly symbolizing spiritual beliefs or daily practices of the deceased. The study also found that organic materials such as resins, plant extracts, leaves, and seeds were more common in kohl recipes than previously believed, suggesting the substance held aesthetic, medicinal, ritual, and everyday significance. These findings highlight the complexity of kohl preparation, which involved diverse ingredients, specialized vessels, and applicators, practices that continued into Roman Egypt and likely shaped Roman cosmetic traditions. Cylindrical kohl containers, often with two or more compartments, were designed to hold different pigments, such as black and green. Some included a handle across the top, with a stick suspended from a chain for application. The frequent discovery of such items in graves indicates that they may have served funerary purposes, reflecting Roman customs of burying personal objects alongside the deceased. As Pliny the Elder notes, kohl was believed to protect and purify the eyes, which may explain its symbolic inclusion in burial rites as a marker of health and spiritual clarity Archaeologists have traditionally identified these vessels, known as unguentaria, as containers for perfumes or cosmetics. A wall painting from a tomb at Morlupo shows them arranged in a glass bowl, possibly as part of a toiletry set. Chemical analysis of some examples confirmed the presence of kohl and oil-based substances, supporting cosmetic use. However, their discovery alongside medical instruments in burial contexts also suggests they may have contained medicinal substances. Given their varied contents, scholars continue to debate their exact use and association with gendered practices. Calliblepharum appears in several ancient literary sources as an eye cosmetic, possibly made from the ash of rose kernels or date stones, though the descriptions often lack clarity regarding its exact use. Pliny the Elder refers to calliblepharum as a cosmetic substance potentially derived from an asphaltic deposit. Varro also references calliblepharum in a poetic context, noting “eyelashes tinted with natural calliblepharum”, which suggests a darkening effect applied to the eyelids or lashes. These references confirm that the term was known in antiquity, though their ambiguity indicates that even contemporary authors may not have clearly understood whether it was intended for the eyelids or the lashes. Class distinctions shaped cosmetic choices. Stewart notes that while wealthier women likely preferred expensive minerals such as antimony and galena, lower-class women often used soot, which they could easily collect from oil lamps in brothels. Although less prestigious, soot offered a more accessible alternative. This contrast illustrates how beauty habits adapted to different levels of social status. Ovid also mentions saffron as an eyeliner, a substance frequently associated with elite women for its brightening effect and luxurious value. Women applied it with a thin stick or needle for precision, although archaeological evidence for this practice remains limited. Stewart argues that Roman use of kohl likely evolved from its earlier symbolic and protective roles in Egyptian ritual practice. She links Roman adaptations like saffron-based eyeliner to the opulence of Egyptian cosmetics, highlighting their connection to wealth and status. Stewart also suggests that Roman women continued using potentially harmful substances because their exotic origins added prestige. However, Olson challenges this view, pointing out the limited textual evidence to support the idea that these ingredients were valued specifically for being foreign.


Beauty Ideal

Roman beauty ideals emphasized large, expressive eyes framed by long lashes and darkened eyebrows that nearly met at the bridge of the nose. This wide-eyed, “doe-like” appearance was often enhanced with cosmetics made from various ingredients. Pliny the Elder observed that Roman women commonly colored their eyelashes and even their eyes in the pursuit of beauty, remarking that “such is their desire to achieve the beauty that they color even their eyes.” He also associated thick eyelashes with chastity, claiming that eyelashes would fall out due to sexual excess. Despite these ideals, male Roman authors, particularly from the upper classes, frequently expressed disdain for the use of cosmetics. Writers active between 50BCE and 200AD often framed makeup as deceptive or immoral. The poet
Juvenal Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ; 55–128), was a Roman poet. He is the author of the '' Satires'', a collection of satirical poems. The details of Juvenal's life are unclear, but references in his works to people f ...
mocked women who used extensive beauty products, including “antimony collyria” for the eyes, describing their cosmetic routines as a symptom of excessive luxury and moral decline Shadi Bartsch notes that the mirror, a common cosmetic tool, was often depicted as a symbol of vanity and even emasculation in Roman literature. Eye makeup also appeared in moralistic and religious discourse.
Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theology, Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A ...
, a Christian philosopher, criticized women who used cosmetics such as soot to darken their eyebrows, referring to them as using “crocodile excrement” and accusing them of vanity and lack of discipline. While soot may have been associated with the lower classes due to its affordability, Clement also condemned the wealthy for spending excessively on luxurious cosmetic containers. Such critiques suggest that condemnation of makeup transcended class boundaries. Literary sources often warned men against being deceived by women’s artificial beauty and encouraged women to present themselves without adornment. Juvenal also ridiculed men who used stibium and fuligo to enhance their own features, reinforcing the association between cosmetics and vanity. In contrast to most male authors,
Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...
offered a more accepting view of women’s cosmetic use. In Medicamina Faciei Femineae, he wrote, “Let each girl enhance her beauty as best she can: art, too, is a part of beauty,” and endorsed stibium for enhancing the eyes: “Why should the eyes not be made more sparkling with black antimony? He advised women to avoid being seen during their beauty routine, but ultimately celebrated cosmetics as a source of pleasure. Ovid also recommended filling in sparse eyebrows, while other authors like Petronius described the ideal eyebrow shape as nearly meeting near the nose.
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman and Celtiberian poet born in Bilbilis, Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of '' Epigrams'', pu ...
and Juvenal referenced false eyebrows and mocked men who followed eyebrow-enhancing trends, again associating cosmetics with effeminacy and excess.


Medicinal Function

Though satirized in literacy, the pharmacological evidence reveals that the substances in the eye makeup contained antibacterial properties and were part of the daily hygiene practice. Kohl, widely used as eye makeup in ancient civilizations, served a dual function that extended beyond aesthetics. While it was applied to enhance eye size and contour—a feature praised in Roman literature—it also held medicinal value, particularly due to its primary ingredient, galena (lead sulfide). As recent pharmacological studies confirm, galena-based kohl stimulated the production of nitric oxide, which enhances immune response and offers antibacterial protection, including against strains like Staphylococcus aureus. This supports Pliny the Elder’s claim that women used stibium (antimony or galena) in “eye medications” rather than purely for beautification. Furthermore, the dark pigment of galena absorbed ultraviolet radiation, acting as a protective shield against the sun’s glare in arid climates. As the authors of Toxicology in Antiquity note, kohl’s widespread use was not merely cosmetic but reflected a sophisticated understanding of its biomedical properties: “lead-based eye preparations… were manufactured and used in ancient Egypt to prevent and treat eye illnesses by supporting the immune system.” Thus, what might appear today as ornamental eye makeup was in antiquity a therapeutic product embedded in daily hygiene and health practices.


Mummy Portraits

Although some scholars mentioned that there are no visual records of women wearing eye up, mummy portraits serve as the minor evidence. These portraits often display women with distinctly defined eyes, including prominent eyelashes and eyebrows, reflecting practices mentioned in both literary and archaeological sources. As such, they serve as rare visual evidence of eye makeup use, particularly among women of higher social standing in Roman Egypt. Artists of mummy portraits frequently employed stylistic conventions that emphasized the eyes. The eyes are often placed higher on the face than in natural proportions and rendered larger than in realistic portraiture, creating a more striking and expressive appearance. This approach aligns with broader Roman visual culture, in which the exaggeration of eye features could signify spiritual presence or elevated social status, rather than mere physical likeness. Facial features in these portraits were typically arranged along precise horizontal lines to draw further attention to the eyes. Subtle visual cues, such as the depiction of prominent eyeliner and gently curled lashes, support the notion of cosmetic use. These artistic details correspond with Roman literary sources, including Pliny the Elder, who described common beauty practices and ideals such as closely drawn brows or even the suggestion of a unibrow.


Eye Shadow

Colored eyeshadow was also applied by women to accentuate their eyes. Green eyeshadow came from
malachite Malachite () is a copper Carbonate mineral, carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the chemical formula, formula Basic copper carbonate, Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often for ...
, while blue came from
azurite Azurite or '' Azure spar'Krivovichev V. G.'' Mineralogical glossary. Scientific editor A. G. Bulakh. — St.Petersburg: St.Petersburg Univ. Publ. House. 2009. — 556 p. — ISBN 978-5-288-04863-0. ''(in Russian)'' is a soft, deep-blue copp ...
. Most women wore green eyeshadow as it was more popular.


Eyebrows

The Romans preferred dark eyebrows that almost met in the center. This effect was achieved by darkening their eyebrows with antimony or soot and then extending them inward. Plucking began in the 1st century BCE to tidy their overall look.


Lips, nails and teeth

Although evidence for the usage of lipstick appears in earlier civilizations, no such evidence has materialized to indicate that the Romans ever colored their lips.Stewart, Susan. ''Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World''. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 111-114. The only evidence for painting nails comes from a red dye they imported that was produced from an Indian insect. Generally only the wealthy cut their nails, as they used barbers to clip their nails short, following the contemporary practice for good hygiene. Although
oral hygiene Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping one's oral cavity clean and free of disease and other problems (e.g. bad breath) by regular brushing of the teeth (dental hygiene) and adopting good hygiene habits. It is important that oral hygiene be carr ...
was nowhere near today’s standards, white teeth were prized by the Romans, and so false teeth, made from bone, ivory and paste, were popular items.
Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...
shed light on the way white teeth were viewed in society when he wrote the statement, "You can do yourself untold damage when you laugh if your teeth are black, too long or irregular." The Romans also sweetened their breath with powder and baking soda.


Perfume

Perfumes were very popular in Ancient Rome. In fact, they were so heavily used that
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
claimed that, "The right scent for a woman is none at all." They came in liquid, solid and sticky forms and were often created in a maceration process with flowers or herbs and oil.
Distillation Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances; the separation process is realized by way of the selective boiling of the mixt ...
technology, as well as most of the imported ingredients, originated in the east. The most prominent perfume market in Italy was Seplasia in
Capua Capua ( ; ) is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Caserta, in the region of Campania, southern Italy, located on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. History Ancient era The name of Capua comes from the Etruscan ''Capeva''. The ...
. Perfumes were rubbed on or poured onto the user and were often believed to be helpful against different ailments, such as fever and indigestion. Different scents were appropriate for different occasions, as well as for men and women. Deodorants made from
alum An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double salt, double sulfate salt (chemistry), salt of aluminium with the general chemical formula, formula , such that is a valence (chemistry), monovalent cation such as potassium ...
, iris and rose petals were common. In addition to personal use, perfumes were used in food and to freshen the household aroma.


Containers and mirrors

Makeup usually came in tablet or cake form, sold at marketplaces. Wealthy women bought expensive makeup that came in elaborate containers made from gold, wood, glass or bone. Kohl came in compartmentalized tubes that could store more than one color of eye makeup.
Glassblowing Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating molten glass into a bubble (or parison) with the aid of a blowpipe (or blow tube). A person who blows glass is called a ''glassblower'', ''glassmith'', or ''gaffer''. A '' lampworke ...
, invented in the 1st century CE in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, lowered the price of containers. The most common color for glass was
teal alt=American teal duck (male), Green-winged teal (male) Teal is a greenish-blue color. Its name comes from that of a bird—the Eurasian teal (''Anas crecca'')—which presents a similarly colored stripe on its head. The word is often used ...
.
Gladiator A gladiator ( , ) was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their ...
sweat and fats of the animals fighting in the arena were sold in souvenir pots outside of the games to improve complexion. Mirrors in Ancient Rome were mostly hand mirrors made from polished metal, or mercury behind glass. Spending too much time in front of a mirror was thought to denote that a woman was weak in character.Stewart, Susan. ''Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World''. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 82-95.


Prostitutes

Cosmetics, and especially their overuse, were commonly associated with prostitutes, both being regarded as immoral and seductive. The Latin word ''lenocinium'' actually meant both "prostitution" and "makeup". Due to their low income, prostitutes tended to use cheaper cosmetics, which emitted rather foul odors. This, combined with the strong, exotic scents used to cover up the stench, made brothels smell especially overwhelming. As prostitutes aged, with their income dependent on their appearance, they opted for more copious amounts of makeup. Courtesans often received cosmetics and perfumes as gifts or partial payment.


Men's use

Men are also known to have used cosmetics in Roman times, although it was frowned upon by society. Men seen carrying mirrors were viewed as effeminate, while those using face-whitening makeup were thought to be immoral because they were expected to be tanned from working outside. Two of the more acceptable practices were the light use of certain perfumes and moderate hair removal. A man removing too much hair was viewed as effeminate, while removing too little made him seem unrefined. The Romans found it especially inappropriate for an emperor to be vain, as was apparently the case with the Emperor
Otho Otho ( ; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was Roman emperor, ruling for three months from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. A member of a noble Etruscan civilization, ...
. The Emperor
Elagabalus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus, 204 – 13 March 222), better known by his posthumous nicknames Elagabalus ( ) and Heliogabalus ( ), was Roman emperor from 218 to 222, while he was still a teenager. His short r ...
removed all of his body hair and often donned makeup, which caused the Romans much grief.


See also

* '' Medicamina Faciei Femineae'', by
Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...
, a singular didactic poem for the female face, whose methods are still used in the manufacture of cosmetics and
pharmaceutical Medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal product, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the ...
s today. Peter Green, (Autumn, 1979). "Ars Gratia Cultus: Ovid as Beautician". ''American Journal of Philology'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) 100 (3):pp. 390-1.


References


External links


The History Channel: An Ancient Roman Make-up Lesson
Video demonstration


A Brief History of Cosmetics in Roman Times

BBC News: Ancient cosmetics brought to life

BBC News: Roman cosmetic secrets revealed
{{Ancient Rome topics History of cosmetics Culture of ancient Rome