Climate of Cambodia
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Cambodia is a country in
mainland Southeast Asia Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...
, border Thailand,
Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
, Vietnam, the
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
and covers a total area of . The country is situated in its entirety inside the tropical
Indomalayan realm The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...
and the Indochina Time zone (ICT). Cambodia's main geographical features are the low lying Central Plain that includes the Tonlé Sap basin, the lower Mekong River flood-plains and the Bassac River plain surrounded by mountain ranges to the north, east, in the south-west and south. The central lowlands extend into Vietnam to the south-east. The south and south-west of the country constitute a long coast at the Gulf of Thailand, characterized by sizable mangrove marshes,
peninsula A peninsula (; ) is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on all ...
s, sandy beaches and headlands and bays. Cambodia's territorial waters account for over 50 islands. The highest peak is
Phnom Aural Phnom AuralNote: alternative spellings includes Phnom and Aoral. ( km, ភ្នំឱរ៉ាល់, ) is the tallest peak in Cambodia. It is 1,813 meters tall (other sources give elevations ឪbetween 1,771 and 1,667 meters). It is in the eas ...
, sitting above sea level. The landmass is bisected by the Mekong river, which at is the longest river in Cambodia. After extensive rapids, turbulent sections and cataracts in
Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
, the river enters the country at
Stung Treng Stung Treng City ( km, ទីក្រុងស្ទឹងត្រែង) ( lo, ຊຽງແຕງ ) is the capital of Stung Treng Province, Cambodia. It is the major city (and capital) of both the district and province. Geography Stung Tren ...
province, is predominantly calm and navigable during the entire year as it widens considerably in the lowlands. The Mekong's waters disperse into the surrounding wetlands of central Cambodia and strongly affect the seasonal nature of the Tonlé Sap lake. Two third of the country's population live in the lowlands, where the rich sediment deposited during the Mekong's annual flooding makes the agricultural lands highly fertile. As deforestation and over-exploitation affected Cambodia only in recent decades, forests, low mountain ranges and local eco-regions still retain much of their natural potential and although still home to the largest areas of contiguous and intact forests in mainland Southeast Asia, multiple serious environmental issues persist and accumulate, which are closely related to rapid population growth, uncontrolled globalization and inconsequential administration. The majority of the country lies within the Tropical savanna climate zone, as the coastal areas in the South and West receive noticeably more and steady rain
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and during the wet season. These areas constitute the easternmost fringes of the south-west monsoon, determined to be inside the Tropical monsoon climate. Countrywide there are two seasons of relatively equal length, defined by varying precipitation as temperatures and humidity are generally high and steady throughout the entire year.


Geological development

Southeast Asia consists of
allochthon upright=1.6, Schematic overview of a thrust system. The hanging wall block is (when it has reasonable proportions) called a nappe. If an erosional hole is created in the nappe that is called a window (geology)">window. A klippe is a solitary out ...
ous continental blocks from
Gondwana Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
land. These include the South China, Indochina, Sibumasu, and West Burma blocks, which amalgamated to form the Southeast Asian continent during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods. The current geological structure of South China and South-East Asia is determined to be the response to the "Indo-sinian" collision in South-East Asia during the
Carboniferous The Carboniferous ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Permian Period, million years ago. The name ''Carbonifero ...
. The Indo-Sinian
orogeny Orogeny is a mountain building process. An orogeny is an event that takes place at a convergent plate margin when plate motion compresses the margin. An ''orogenic belt'' or ''orogen'' develops as the compressed plate crumples and is uplifted t ...
was followed by extension of the Indo-Chinese block, the formation of rift basins and
thermal subsidence In geology and geophysics, thermal subsidence is a mechanism of subsidence in which conductive cooling of the mantle thickens the lithosphere and causes it to decrease in elevation. This is because of thermal contraction: as mantle material cools a ...
during the early Triassic. The Indochina continental block, which is separated from the South China Block by the Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan Suture zone, is an amalgamation of the Viet-Lao, Khorat-Kontum, Uttaradit (UTD), and Chiang Mai-West Kachin terranes, all of which are separated by
suture zones Suture, literally meaning "seam", may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Suture (album), ''Suture'' (album), a 2000 album by American Industrial rock band Chemlab * Suture (film), ''Suture'' (film), a 1993 film directed by Scott McGehee an ...
or ductile
shear zone In geology, a shear zone is a thin zone within the Earth's crust or upper mantle that has been strongly deformed, due to the walls of rock on either side of the zone slipping past each other. In the upper crust, where rock is brittle, the shear ...
s. The Khorat-Kontum terrane, which includes western Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam, consists of the Kontum metamorphic complex, Paleozoic shallow marine deposits, upper Permian arc volcanic rocks and Mesozoic
terrigenous In oceanography, terrigenous sediments are those derived from the erosion of rocks on land; that is, they are derived from ''terrestrial'' (as opposed to marine) environments. Consisting of sand, mud, and silt carried to sea by rivers, their ...
sedimentary rocks. The central plains consist mainly of
Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ...
sands,
loam Loam (in geology and soil science) is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > ), silt (particle size > ), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < ). By weight, its mineral composition is about 40–40–20% concentration of sand–sil ...
and clay, as most of the northern mountain regions and the coastal region are largely composed of Cretaceous granite, Triassic stones and Jurassic sandstone formations.


General topography

Bowl- or saucer-shaped, Cambodia covers in the south-western part of the
Indochinese peninsula Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...
as its landmass and marine territory is situated entirely within the tropics. The bowl's bottom represents Cambodia's interior, about 75 percent, consisting of alluvial flood-plains of the Tonlé Sap basin, the lower Mekong River and the Bassac River plain, whose waters feed the large and almost centrally located wetlands. As humans preferably settle in these fertile and easily accessible central lowlands, major transformations and widespread cultivation through wet-rice agriculture have over the centuries shaped the landscape into distinctive regional cultivated lands. Domestic plants, such as sugar palms,
Coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
trees and
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
groves almost exclusively skirt extensive rice paddies, as natural vegetation is confined to elevated lands and near waterways. The Mekong traverses the north to south-east portions of the country, where the low-lying plains extend into Vietnam and reach the South China Sea at the
Mekong Delta The Mekong Delta ( vi, Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long, lit=Nine Dragon River Delta or simply vi, Đồng Bằng Sông Mê Kông, lit=Mekong River Delta, label=none), also known as the Western Region ( vi, Miền Tây, links=no) or South-weste ...
region. Cambodia's low mountain ranges - representing the walls of the bowl - remain as the result of only rather recent substantial infrastructural development and economic exploitation - in particular in remote areas - formidably forested. The country is fringed to the north by the Dangrek Mountains plateau, bordering Thailand and Laos, to the north-east by the Annamite Range, in the south-west by the Cardamom Mountains and in the South by the
Elephant Mountains Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae an ...
. Highlands to the north-east and to the east merge into the Central Highlands and the
Mekong Delta The Mekong Delta ( vi, Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long, lit=Nine Dragon River Delta or simply vi, Đồng Bằng Sông Mê Kông, lit=Mekong River Delta, label=none), also known as the Western Region ( vi, Miền Tây, links=no) or South-weste ...
lowlands of Vietnam. A heavily indented coastline at the
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
of length and 60 offshore islands, that dot the territorial waters and locally merge with tidal mangrove marshes - the environmental basis for a remarkable range of marine and coastal eco-regions.


Soils

"Sandy materials cover a large proportion of the landscape of Cambodia, on account of the siliceous sedimentary formations that underlie much of the Kingdom. Mesozoic sandstone dominates most of the basement geology in Cambodia and hence has a dominating influence on the properties of upland soils. Arenosols (sandy soils featuring very weak or no soil development) are mapped on only 1.6% of the land area." "Sandy surface textures are more prevalent than the deep sandy soils that fit the definition for Arenosols. Sandy textured profiles are common amongst the most prevalent soil groups, including Acrisols and Leptosols. The Acrisols are the most prevalent soil group occupying the lowlands - nearly half of the land area of Cambodia. Low fertility and toxic amounts of aluminium pose limitations to its agricultural use, crops that can be successfully cultivated include rubber tree, oil palm, coffee and sugar cane. The main subgroups are: Gleyic Acrisols (20.5%, Haplic Acrisols (13.3%), Plinthic Acrisol (8.7%) and Ferric Acrisol (6.3%)."


Geographical extremes

* Northernmost point: Ta Veaeng District, Rattanakiri Province () * Southernmost point:
Koh Poulo Wai Koh Wai, km, កោះពូលូវៃ, also known as Poulo Wai or the Wai Islands, is a group of two small wooded and uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Siam. The islands are located far away from the shore, to the southwest of the coast of ...
, Kampot Province () * Easternmost point:
Ou Ya Dav District Ou Ya Dav District ( km, អូរយ៉ាដាវ) is a district in Ratanakiri Province, northeast Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in ...
, Rattanakiri Province () * Westernmost point: Malai District, Banteay Meanchey Province ()


Regions


Central plain

The vast alluvial and lacustrine interconnected Cambodian flood-plain is a geologically relatively recent depression where the sediments of the Mekong and its tributaries accumulate as waters are subject to frequent course changes. The area covers . The Tonlé Sap lake and - river system occupies the lowest area. The Tonle Sap river is a waterway that branches off the Mekong near Phnom Penh in the north-westerly direction and meets the Tonle Sap lake after around . Its waters' flow reverses direction every year, caused by greatly varying amounts of water carried by the Mekong over the course of a year and the impact of monsoonal rains, that coincides with the river's maximum. The plains of the Mekong and Tonle Sap basin are confined in the North by the Dangrek and Central Annamite Mountains, and to the South by the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Mountains. The plains completely surround the Tonle Sap Lake in the western half of the country and wind their way through the middle of the country following the course of the Mekong River. The two basins actually form a single body of water, the whole of which effects about 75% of Cambodia’s land cover.


Flow reversal

The Mekong river and its tributaries increase water volumes in spring (May) on the northern hemisphere, mainly caused by melting snows. As the Mekong enters Cambodia (over 95% of its waters have already joined the river) it widens and inundates large areas. The plain's deepest point - the Tonle Sap - flooded area varies from a low of around with a depth of around 1 meter at the end of the dry season (April) to and a depth of up to 9 meters in October/November. This figure rose to during 2000 when some of the worst flood conditions recorded caused over 800 deaths in Cambodia and Vietnam. Inflow starts in May/June with maximum rates of flow of around 10,000 m3/s by late August and ends in October/November, amplified by precipitation of the annual monsoon. In November the lake reaches its maximum size. The annual monsoon coincides to cease around this time of the year. As the Mekong river begins its minimum around this time of the year and its water level falls deeper than the inundated Tonle Sap lake, Tonle Sap river and surrounding wetlands, waters of the lake's basin now drains via the Tonle Sap river into the Mekong. As a result the Tonle Sap River (length around ) flows 6 months a year from South-East (Mekong) to North-West (lake) and 6 month a year in the opposite direction. The mean annual reverse flow volume in the Tonle Sap is , or about half of the maximum lake volume. A further 10% is estimated to enter the system by overland flow from the Mekong. The Mekong branches off into several arms near
Phnom Penh Phnom Penh (; km, ភ្នំពេញ, ) is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia and has grown to become the nation's primate city and its economic, indus ...
and reaches Vietnamese territory south of Koh Thom and Loek Daek districts of Kandal Province.


Southern Mountains

This region represents the eastern parts of the original extent of the wet evergreen forests that cover the Cardamom - and Elephant Mountains in South-West Cambodia and along the mountains east of Bangkok in Thailand. The densely wooded hills receive rainfall of annually on their western slopes (which are subject to the South-West monsoons) but only on their eastern - rain shadow - slopes. The Cardamom/Krâvanh Mountains Occupying Koh Kong Province and Kampong Speu Province, running in a north-western to south-eastern direction and rising to more than . The highest mountain of Cambodia,
Phnom Aural Phnom AuralNote: alternative spellings includes Phnom and Aoral. ( km, ភ្នំឱរ៉ាល់, ) is the tallest peak in Cambodia. It is 1,813 meters tall (other sources give elevations ឪbetween 1,771 and 1,667 meters). It is in the eas ...
, at is located in Aoral District in Kampong Speu Province. The Cardamom Mountains form - including the north-western part of Chanthaburi Province, Thailand, the 'Soi Dao Mountains' - ''the Cardamom Mountains Moist Forests Ecoregion'', that is considered to be one of the most species-rich and intact natural habitats in the region. The climate, size inaccessibility and seclusion of the mountains have allowed a rich variety of wildlife to thrive. The Cardamom and Elephant Mountains remain to be fully researched and documented. The Elephant Mountains Chuŏr Phnum Dâmrei - A north-south-trending range of high hills, an extension of the Cardamom/Krâvanh Mountains, in south-eastern Cambodia, rising to elevations of between 500 and 1,000 meters. Extending north from the Gulf of Thailand, they reach a high point in the
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ridge at Mount Bokor near the sea. To the south-west of the Southern mountain ranges extends a narrow coastal plain that contains the Kampong Saom Bay area and the Sihanoukville peninsula, facing the
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
.


Northern Mountains

The Dangrek Mountains A forested range of hills averaging , dividing Thailand from Cambodia, mainly formed of massive sandstone with slate and silt. A few characteristic basalt hills are located on the northern side of the mountain chain. This east–west-trending range extends from the Mekong River westward for approximately , merging with the highland area near San Kamphaeng, Thailand. Essentially the southern escarpment of the sandstone Khorat Plateau of northeastern Thailand, the Dângrêk range slopes gradually northward to the Mun River in Thailand but falls more abruptly in the south to the Cambodian plain. Its highest point is . The watershed along the escarpment in general terms marks the boundary between Thailand and Cambodia, however there are exceptions. The region is covered in dry evergreen forest, mixed
dipterocarp forest Dipterocarpaceae is a family of 16 genera and about 695 known species of mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees. The family name, from the type genus ''Dipterocarpus'', is derived from Greek (''di'' = two, ''pteron'' = wing and ''karpos'' = fru ...
, and deciduous dipterocarp forests. Tree species like Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Shorea siamensis and Xylia xylocarpa var. kerrii dominate. Illegal logging are issues on both, the Thai as well as on the Cambodian side, leaving large hill stretches denuded, vulnerable tree species such as
Dalbergia cochinchinensis ''Dalbergia cochinchinensis'', the Thailand rosewood, Siamese rosewood, or tracwood, ( th, พะยูง: ''Phayung'' ; Vietnamese: Trắc (or Cẩm lai nam bộ); Khmer: ក្រញូង: ''Kranhung'' ; Lao: ກະຍູງ: ''Kayung'' ; C ...
have been affected. Forest fires are common during the dry season. Annamite Range Lying to the east of the Mekong River, the long chain of mountains called the Annamite Mountains of Indochina and the lowlands that surround them make up the Greater Annamites ecoregion. Levels of rainfall vary from annually. Mean annual temperatures are about . This eco-region contains some of the last relatively intact moist forests in Indochina. Moisture-laden monsoon winds, that blow in from the
Gulf of Tonkin The Gulf of Tonkin is a gulf at the northwestern portion of the South China Sea, located off the coasts of Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and South China. It has a total surface area of . It is defined in the west and northwest by the northern ...
ensure permanent high air humidity. Plants and animals adapted to moist conditions, to seek refuge here and evolve into highly specialized types that are found nowhere else on Earth. Ethnically diverse More than 30 ethnic groups of indigenous people live in the Annamites, each with their distinctive and traditional music, language, dress and customs. The natural resources of the Greater Annamites are vital to all of these people.


Eastern Highlands

Tall grasses and deciduous forests
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the ground east of the Mekong River in Mondulkiri, where the transitional plains merge with the eastern highlands at altitudes from . The landscape has suffered from rubber farming, logging and particularly mining, although sizable areas of pristine jungle survive, which are home to rare and endemic wildlife.


Coast

Cambodia's coastal area covers , distributed among four provinces:
Sihanoukville province Preah Sihanouk ( km, ព្រះសីហនុ, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ), also Sihanoukville, is a province (''khaet'') in southwest Cambodia on the Gulf of Thailand. The provincial capital, also called Sihanoukville, is a deep water port city ...
, Kampot province, Koh Kong province, and Kep province. The total length of the Cambodian coastal area has been disputed. The most widely accepted length is , a 1997 survey by the
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) is the brand used by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark when it provides humanitarian aid and development assistance to other countries, with focus on developing countries. There is no dist ...
organization announced a length at , and in 1973 the ''Oil Authority'' found the coast to be long. The Food and Agriculture Organization claims a length of in one of its studies. The southern mountain ranges drain to the south and west towards the shallow sea. Sediments on the continental shelf are the basis for extensive mangroves marshes, in particular in the Koh Kong province and the
Ream National Park The Ream National Park ( km, ឧទ្យានជាតិរាម), officially the Preah Sihanouk Ream National Park ( km, ឧទ្យានជាតិព្រះសីហនុរាម), is a national park of Cambodia located from the c ...
.


Islands

Cambodia’s islands fall under administration of the 4 coastal provinces. "There are 60 islands in Cambodia's coastal waters. They include 23 in Koh Kong province, 2 in Kampot province, 22 in Sihanoukville and 13 in Kep city. ic Most islands are, apart from the two small groups of the outer islands, in relative proximity to the coast. The islands and the coastal region of Koh Kong Province are mainly composed of upper Jurassic and lower Cretaceous sandstone massives. The north-westernmost islands near and around the Kaoh Pao river delta (Prek Kaoh Pao) area are to a great extent sediments of estuaries and rivers, very flat and engulfed in contiguous mangrove marshes.


Climate

Cambodia's climate, like that of much of the rest of mainland Southeast Asia is dominated by monsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences. The monsoonal air-flows are caused by annual alternating high pressure and low pressure over the Central Asian landmass. In summer, moisture-laden air—the southwest monsoon—is drawn landward from the Indian Ocean. The flow is reversed during the winter, and the northeast monsoon sends back dry air. The southwest monsoon brings the rainy season from mid-May to mid-September or to early October, and the northeast monsoon flow of drier and cooler air lasts from early November to March. Temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the Tonlé Sap Basin area, with only small variations from the average annual mean of around . The maximum mean is about ; the minimum mean, about . Maximum temperatures of higher than , however, are common and, just before the start of the rainy season, they may rise to more than . Minimum night temperatures sporadically fall below . in January, the coldest month. May is the warmest month - although strongly influenced by the beginning of the wet season, as the area constitutes the easternmost fringe of the south-west monsoon. Tropical cyclones only rarely cause damage in Cambodia. The total annual rainfall average is between , and the heaviest amounts fall in the southeast. Rainfall from April to September in the Tonlé Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands area averages annually, but the amount varies considerably from year to year. Rainfall around the basin increases with elevation. It is heaviest in the mountains along the coast in the southwest, which receive from to more than of precipitation annually as the southwest monsoon reaches the coast. This area of greatest rainfall drains mostly to the sea; only a small quantity goes into the rivers flowing into the basin. Relative humidity is high throughout the entire year; usually exceeding 90%. During the dry season daytime humidity rates average around 50 percent or slightly lower, climbing to about 90% during the rainy season.


Hydrology

The Mekong River and its tributaries comprise one of the largest river systems in the world. The central Tonle Sap, the ''Great Lake'' has several input rivers, the most important being the Tonle Sap River, which contributes 62% of the total water supply during the rainy season. Direct rainfall on the lake and the other rivers in the sub-basin contribute the remaining 38%. Major rivers are the Sen river,
Sreng River The Stung Sreng River (also spelled ''Stoeng Sreng''; km, ស្ទឹងស្រែង) is situated in north-western Cambodia. Its source lies in the southern slopes of the Dangrek Mountains and after traversing through three provinces - Odda ...
, Stung Pouthisat River, Sisophon River,
Mongkol Borei River The Mongkol Borey River ( km, ស្ទឹងមង្គលបុរី) is a river in Mongkol Borey District in Banteay Meanchey Province in northwestern Cambodia. It flows from the border of Chanthaburi Province of Thailand and runs through ...
, and Sangkae River. Smaller rivers in the southeast, the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Range form separate
drainage divide A drainage divide, water divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting or height of land is elevated terrain that separates neighboring drainage basins. On rugged land, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a singl ...
s. To the east the rivers flow into the Tonle Sap, as in the south-west rivers flow into the
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
. Toward the southern slopes of the Elephant Mountains, small rivers flow south-eastward on the eastern side of the divide. The Mekong River flows southward from the Cambodia-Laos border to a point south of Kratié (town), where it turns west for about and then turns southwest towards Phnom Penh. Extensive rapids run north of Kratie city. From Kampong Cham Province the gradient slopes very gently, and inundation of areas along the river occurs at flood stage. From June through November—through breaks in the natural
levee A levee (), dike (American English), dyke (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English), embankment, floodbank, or stop bank is a structure that is usually soil, earthen and that often runs parallel (geometry), parallel to ...
s that have built up along its course. At Phnom Penh four major water courses meet at a point called the Chattomukh (Four Faces). The Mekong River flows in from the northeast and the Tonle Sap river emanates from the Tonle Sap—flows in from the northwest. They divide into two parallel channels, the Mekong River proper and the Bassac River, and flow independently through the delta areas of Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea. The flow of water into the Tonle Sap is seasonal. In spring, the flow of the Mekong River, fed by monsoon rains, increases to a point where its outlets through the delta can't handle the enormous volume of water. At this point, the water pushes northward up the Tonle Sap river and empties into the Tonle Sap lake, thereby increasing the size of the lake from about to about at the height of the flooding. After the Mekong's waters crest — when its downstream channels can handle the volume of water — the flow reverses, and water flows out of the engorged lake. As the level of the Tonle Sap retreats, it deposits a new layer of sediment. The annual flooding, combined with poor drainage immediately around the lake, transforms the surrounding area into marshlands, unusable for agricultural purposes during the dry season. The sediment deposited into the lake during the Mekong's flood stage appears to be greater than the quantity carried away later by the Tonle Sap River. Gradual silting of the lake would seem to be occurring; during low-water level, it is only about deep, while at flood stage it is between deep.


Vegetation & ecoregions

Cambodia has one of the highest levels of forest cover in the region as the interdependence of Cambodia’s geography and hydrology makes it rich in natural resources and biological diversity - among the bio-richest countries in Southeast Asia. The Royal Government of Cambodia estimates Cambodia contains approximately 10.36 million hectares of forest cover, representing approximately 57.07% of Cambodia’s land area (2011). On the contrary, international observers and independent sources provide rather different numbers. Consensus permeates, as most sources agree, that deforestation in Cambodia, loss of seasonal wetlands and habitat destruction - among countless minor factors - correlates with the absence of strict administrative control and indifference in law enforcement - not only in Cambodia but the entire region. Figures and assessments are numerous as are available sources. as seen in numbers below, which provide a wide range for interpretation. About (1%) of forest cover is planted forest. Overall Cambodia’s forests contain an estimated 464 million metric tonnes of carbon stock in living forest
biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...
. Approximately 40% of Cambodia’s Forests have some level of protection, while one of the Cambodia Millennium Development Goals targets is to achieve a 60% forest cover by 2015. According to the ''Forestry Administration'' statistics, a total of 380,000 hectares of forest were cleared between 2002 and 2005/2006 - a deforestation rate of 0.5% per year. The main cause of deforestation has been determined to be large-scale agricultural expansions.


Southern Annamites Montane Rain Forests ecoregion

The Southern Annamites Montane Rain Forests ecoregion of the montane forests of Kontuey Nea, "the dragon's tail" in the remote north-west of Cambodia, where the boundaries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam meet his is in the northeast, not the northwest? is remarkably rich in biodiversity. The relatively intact forests occupy a broad topographic range - from lowlands with wet evergreen forests to montane habitats with evergreen hardwood and
conifer Conifers are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single ...
forests. The complex geological, topographic and climatic ( rainfall and temperature ) facets that characterize the region make forest structure and composition unique and very variable. There is an unusually high number of near-endemic and endemic species among the many species to be found in the area. The entire eco-region has a size of . Teri maa ka bhosda.


The Great Lake ecosystem

The Tonle Sap, also known as the Great Lake in central Cambodia is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia and one of the richest inland fishing grounds in the world. The Lake functions as a natural flood water reservoir for the Mekong system as a whole and therefore is an important source of water for the Mekong Delta during the dry season. The ecosystem has developed as a result of the Mekong’s seasonal flow fluctuations. A belt of freshwater mangroves known as the "flooded forest" surrounds the lake. The floodplains in turn are surrounded by low hills, covered with evergreen seasonal tropical forest with substantial dipterocarp vegetation or deciduous dry forest. The eco-region consists of a mosaic of habitats for a great number of species. The forest gradually yields to bushes and finally grassland with increasing distance from the lake. Henri Mouhot: "Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China" 1864 On higher quality soils or at higher elevation, areas of mixed deciduous forest and semi-evergreen forests occur. This variety of vegetation types accounts for the quantity and diversity of species of the Great Lake ecosystem. Interlocking forest, - grassland and marshland patches provide the many facets and refugia for the abundant local wildlife. The lake’s flooded forest and the surrounding floodplains are of utmost importance for Cambodia's agriculture as the region represents the cultural heart of Cambodia, the center of the national freshwater fishery industry - the nation's primary protein source. Threats to the lake include widespread pollution, stress through growth of the local population which is dependent on the lake for subsistence and livelihood, over-harvesting of fish and other aquatic - often endangered - species, habitat destruction and potential changes in the hydrology, such as the construction and operation of dams, that disrupt the lake's natural flood cycle. However, concerns that the lake is rapidly filling with sediment seem - according to studies - to be unfounded at the present time.


Wetlands

Wetlands cover more than 30% of Cambodia. In addition to the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap floodplain there are the Stung Sen River and the coastal Stung Koh Pao - and Stung Kep estuaries of Koh Kong Province and Kep Province. The freshwater wetlands of Cambodia represent one of the most diverse ecosystems worldwide. The area’s extensive wetland habitats are the product of the annual Mekong maximum, the simultaneous wet season and the drainage paths of a number of minor rivers. See also: Geography of Cambodia#Hydrology The numerous and varied wetlands are Cambodia's central and traditional settlement area, the productive environments for rice cultivation, freshwater fisheries, other forms of agriculture and aquaculture and the constantly growing tourism sector. Considering the eco-region's importance, a variety of plans for local wetland management consolidation exist with varying degrees of completion.


Coastal habitats

The Cambodian coastline consists of of over 30 species of mangroves - among the most biologically diverse wetlands on earth. The most pristine mangrove forests are found in Koh Kong Province. In addition to mangroves,
sea-grass Seagrasses are the only flowering plants which grow in marine environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the orde ...
beds extend throughout the coastal areas, especially in Kampot Province, the Sihanoukville Bay Delta and the Kep municipal waters. The meadows are highly productive, but few animals feed directly on the grasses. Those that do tend to be vertebrates such as sea turtles, dabbling ducks and geese. "With their roots deep in mud, jagged and gnarled mangrove trees are able to grow in the brackish wetlands between land and sea where other plant life cannot survive. The trees offer refuge and nursery grounds for fish, crabs, shrimp, and mollusks. They are nesting - and migratory sites for hundreds of bird species. They also provide homes for monkeys, lizards, sea turtles, and many other animals as well as countless insects." "Until relatively recently, the mangroves of Koh Kong, Cambodia have remained relatively intact. This is partly because of the region’s location — it is an isolated, inaccessible place — and because decades of war and conflict perversely protected the forests from over-exploitation. Local people, however, tended to use the forest's sustainability, for food, fuel, medicine, building materials, and other basic needs."


Fauna

Cambodia is home to a wide array of wildlife. There are 212
mammal Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
species, 536 bird species, 176
reptile Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalians ( ...
species (including 89 subspecies), 850 freshwater fish species ( Tonlé Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species. Many of the country's species are recognized by the
IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
or World Conservation Union as threatened, endangered, or critically endangered due to deforestation and habitat destruction, poaching, illegal wildlife trade, farming, fishing, and unauthorized forestry concessions. Intensive poaching may have already driven Cambodia's national animal, the Kouprey, to extinction. Wild tigers, Eld's deer, wild water buffaloes and hog deer are at critically low numbers.


Protected areas

"The 1993 Royal Decree on the Protection of Natural Areas recognized 23 protected areas, which at the time covered more than 18% of the country’s total land area." * Natural parks (sometimes described as ‘national parks’) * Wildlife reserves * Protected scenic view areas (sometimes described as ‘protected landscapes’) * Multi-purpose areas


Political and human geography

Cambodia borders Vietnam over a length of , Thailand over a length of and Laos over a length of , with in total and an additional of coastline. The capital (''reach thani'') and provinces (''khaet'') of Cambodia are first-level administrative divisions. Cambodia is divided into 25 provinces including the capital. Municipalities and districts are the second-level administrative divisions of Cambodia. The provinces are subdivided into 159 districts and 26 municipalities. The districts and municipalities in turn are further divided into communes (''khum'') and quarters (''sangkat'').


Land use

Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam have experienced major changes in land use and land cover over the last two decades. The emergence from cold war rivalries and recent major economic reforms result in a shift from subsistence agrarian modes of production to market-based agricultural production and industrialized economies, which are heavily integrated into regional and global trade systems.


Regional divisions

Cambodia's boundaries were for the most part based upon those recognized by France and by neighboring countries during the colonial period. The boundary with Thailand runs along the
watershed Watershed is a hydrological term, which has been adopted in other fields in a more or less figurative sense. It may refer to: Hydrology * Drainage divide, the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins * Drainage basin, called a "watershe ...
of the Dangrek Mountains, although only in its northern sector. The border with Laos and the border with Vietnam result from French administrative decisions and do not follow major natural features. Border disputes have broken out in the past and do persist between Cambodia and Thailand as well as between Cambodia and Vietnam. Image:Cambodia, administrative divisions - de - colored, 2013.svg, 550px poly 355 962 361 973 371 973 375 962 381 964 376 955 378 931 390 921 397 905 398 898 393 885 420 844 437 832 442 848 436 855 440 868 431 885 444 902 443 930 436 937 431 933 426 934 407 951 410 955 407 966 413 981 408 996 411 1008 416 1009 418 1015 415 1030 404 1037 379 1090 222 1125 178 1097 257 1035 304 1035 320 1012 350 1008 345 1002 349 991 355 988 360 980 Sihanoukville poly 471 1081 492 1033 523 1030 528 1070 524 1095 Kep poly 399 1053 422 1024 412 996 413 941 457 926 440 896 472 913 491 922 515 904 526 907 532 926 548 931 548 938 555 968 590 968 609 1006 591 1033 589 1064 554 1070 542 1103 529 1083 537 1017 492 1028 468 1082 Kampot poly 518 909 550 969 555 975 590 960 593 998 589 1022 590 1049 600 1070 652 1066 665 1025 687 1006 666 957 672 919 666 889 641 870 638 857 595 855 585 929 Takéo poly 606 779 613 845 666 825 645 770
Phnom Penh Phnom Penh (; km, ភ្នំពេញ, ) is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia and has grown to become the nation's primate city and its economic, indus ...
poly 611 725 573 831 614 832 595 856 652 860 655 885 675 898 667 932 673 968 707 964 727 868 712 819 680 799 655 809 654 823 647 829 628 834 617 837 608 826 613 814 615 807 612 798 613 782 623 779 641 780 650 791 656 808 686 799 696 766 667 756 671 740 663 727 643 741 622 735 Kandal poly 684 805 683 763 724 740 760 736 772 757 820 759 837 776 846 796 838 810 821 820 817 846 812 876 811 889 806 918 808 933 806 950 783 954 759 956 749 981 705 961 722 909 737 867 724 829 Prey Veng poly 870 805 830 807 821 864 816 897 800 930 802 954 852 925 864 974 874 995 886 966 906 986 940 998 940 963 940 949 944 929 925 914 921 914 905 899 884 881 873 869 873 854 Svay Rieng poly 713 751 688 766 672 756 676 735 662 723 639 735 630 741 621 728 625 704 642 687 646 623 714 639 694 604 746 595 762 575 797 575 829 574 834 618 865 645 900 659 924 681 936 696 934 706 970 713 1014 711 1005 725 1008 761 1014 781 1005 793 965 766 927 751 879 782 862 787 827 762 790 753 762 752 741 728 Kampong Cham poly 476 695 458 633 513 609 521 547 584 549 625 574 636 607 635 634 632 668 635 699 622 718 609 736 599 746 565 751 547 760 507 749 Kampong Chhnang poly 366 738 471 680 511 755 565 759 597 736 601 744 576 830 611 838 597 860 583 921 553 920 519 900 497 918 473 926 446 899 435 894 438 853 435 815 410 805 386 781 Kampong Speu poly 355 964 343 946 342 922 328 920 316 902 302 906 286 954 290 969 275 976 269 966 248 964 240 975 263 1018 251 1029 234 1007 207 972 199 955 214 943 211 926 216 918 208 889 201 889 190 881 187 870 184 842 192 838 185 816 174 796 170 785 169 755 155 736 149 720 139 700 139 691 180 691 191 693 216 706 229 707 252 696 265 696 283 668 293 671 300 665 315 670 345 700 354 701 360 710 379 711 394 732 375 733 379 743 375 747 373 760 379 772 379 786 413 811 420 808 429 808 432 813 441 816 437 835 421 842 392 888 394 897 395 903 388 923 377 932 377 955 380 965 373 963 372 974 362 974 360 964 Koh Kong poly 60 448 86 450 113 418 129 434 135 490 132 523 111 535 83 537 72 533 70 507 77 489 Pailin poly 189 134 241 173 247 216 273 197 295 239 371 175 532 213 545 185 557 171 560 106 485 90 424 97 389 95 351 81 310 81 241 96 Oddar Meanchey poly 565 106 557 177 533 203 524 255 533 291 543 312 587 321 576 355 581 395 621 371 641 389 655 428 668 437 761 358 802 327 798 274 776 239 798 231 871 218 852 185 809 167 781 174 747 172 726 151 704 116 697 131 674 147 648 109 635 97 594 89 Preah Vihear poly 286 212 290 358 171 361 125 346 123 321 29 324 33 301 90 298 93 273 138 248 163 183 186 142 219 177 239 177 242 217 275 201 Banteay Meanchey poly 285 352 280 229 377 183 417 200 493 206 529 209 518 245 524 271 525 287 527 314 587 312 566 382 539 401 536 442 483 502 439 472 402 433 372 389
Siem Reap Siem Reap ( km, សៀមរាប, ) is the second-largest city of Cambodia, as well as the capital and largest city of Siem Reap Province in northwestern Cambodia. Siem Reap has French colonial and Chinese-style architecture in the Old F ...
poly 35 321 115 326 121 354 171 355 239 356 296 363 363 369 408 430 369 453 347 489 341 540 336 573 282 559 243 558 205 565 179 574 164 593 146 595 82 536 149 515 129 418 100 417 92 438 89 446 67 440 46 430 30 407 Battambang poly 127 594 127 696 214 707 279 685 304 669 379 711 401 733 482 681 454 633 514 610 518 566 474 519 440 471 391 420 363 467 344 498 341 552 339 581 296 561 277 551 260 564 212 560 199 564 189 581 Pursat poly 466 510 528 566 537 549 561 544 603 557 627 571 635 590 641 609 641 621 640 631 708 647 693 591 748 610 753 568 841 571 792 335 648 440 633 404 643 367 564 380 543 408 533 452
Kampong Thom Kampong Thom may refer to: *Kampong Thom city Kampong Thom ( km, ក្រុងកំពង់ធំ), also Krong Kampong Thom, is the capital city of Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia lying on the bank of the Steung Saen River. It is a mid-wa ...
poly 810 390 846 635 928 696 980 722 1084 709 1086 635 1006 592 982 545 1052 492 1041 427 998 414 968 359 961 337 898 400 870 426 836 403 Kratie poly 781 230 794 297 795 364 803 412 863 420 926 367 1002 364 1037 367 1048 361 1028 294 1054 249 1046 202 1085 190 1069 93 1022 62 975 83 909 116 939 171 943 211 922 228 859 214
Stung Tren Stung may be: * the past participle of the verb '':wikt:sting#English, to sting''; see Stinger (for animal stings), and Stinging plant * the title of two films: ** Stung (1931 film), ''Stung'' (1931 film) ** Stung (2015 film), ''Stung'' (2015 film) ...
poly 1071 98 1077 187 1042 209 1050 256 1028 315 1044 359 1055 389 1132 416 1161 404 1163 369 1288 374 1254 254 1226 202 1220 178 1227 119 1246 89 1261 34 1239 54 1234 69 1222 59 1211 62 1191 82 1176 103 1145 93 1135 110 1108 120 Ratanakkiri poly 981 350 988 397 1010 424 1046 427 1045 493 1007 517 991 566 1006 585 1029 629 1096 640 1090 683 1150 685 1185 618 1232 627 1250 644 1272 594 1280 530 1260 464 1262 417 1276 378 1227 372 1183 365 1156 370 1142 399 1116 412 1074 398 1045 375 1026 352 988 354 Mondulkiri desc top-left


Area and boundaries

Area:
''total:''
''land:''
''water:'' Maritime claims:
''territorial sea:''
''contiguous zone:''
''exclusive economic zone:''
''continental shelf:'' Elevation extremes:
''lowest point:''
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...

''highest point:'' Phnum Aoral Border disputes * Cambodian–Thai border dispute * Cambodian–Vietnamese land dispute Lakes * Tonlé Sap Lake * Yak Loum Crater Lake – Ratanakiri


Natural resources

* Oil and natural gas - In addition to the four parts of mining project, the oilfield, Block A was discovered in 2005 and located offshore in the gulf of Thailand Chevron would operate and hold a 30% interest Block A which cover . It is expected to get 30-year-production permit in the second quarter of 2011. In late 1969, the Cambodian government granted a permit to a French company to explore for petroleum in the
Gulf of Thailand The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
. By 1972 none had been located, and exploration ceased when the
Khmer Republic The Khmer Republic ( km, សាធារណរដ្ឋខ្មែរ, ; french: République khmère) was a pro-United States military-led republican government of Cambodia that was formally declared on 9 October 1970. The Khmer Republic wa ...
(see Appendix B) fell in 1975. Subsequent oil and gas discoveries in the Gulf of Thailand and in the South China Sea, however, could spark renewed interest in Cambodia's offshore area, especially because the country is on the same
continental shelf A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island ...
as its Southeast Asian oil-producing neighbors. * Timber ** Dipterocarpus alatus (chheuteal tan) Sawnwood, veneer, plywood **
Anisoptera glabra ''Anisoptera scaphula'' is a species of plant in the family Dipterocarpaceae. It is native to Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand. Description ''Anisoptera scaphula'' is a tall tree, reaching a height of and a girth of . ...
(mersawa, phdiek) Sawnwood, veneer, plywood ** Hopea odorata (koki) Sawmilling, construction (bridges, boats) ** Shorea vulgaris (choë(r) chông) Sawmilling, construction (housing) ** Tarrietia javanica Sawnwood (decorative, furniture) *
Gemstone A gemstone (also called a fine gem, jewel, precious stone, or semiprecious stone) is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, ...
s - Gemstone areas are located in Samlot district of Battambang, Paillin, Ratanakkiri, and Takéo Province * Iron ore - Hermatite (Fe2O3); Magnetite (Fe3O4); Limonite (2Fe2O3, 3H2O) - was found in two areas, one located in Phnom Deck and the others located in Koh Keo of Preah Vihear Province, and Thalaborivath of Stung Treng Province. According to General Department of Mineral, the total iron reserves in Phnom Deck area are estimated at 5 to 6 Million tons and other deposits may add 2 to 3 Million tons. * Gold - Gold deposit was found in four provinces: Kampong Cham (The Rumchek in Memot area), Kampong Thom (Phnom Chi area), Preah Vihear (Phnom Deck in Roveing district), Ratanakiri (Oyadav district) and Mondulkiri * Bauxite – was found in Battambang Province and Chhlong district in Mondulkiri Province. * Antimony (Sb) – found in Sre Peang area, Pursat Province *
Chromium Chromium is a chemical element with the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in group 6. It is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard, and brittle transition metal. Chromium metal is valued for its high corrosion resistance and hardne ...
(Cr) – found in Sre Peang area, Pursat Province * manganese * phosphates * Hydro-power - Hydroelectric dams:
Lower Se San 2 Dam The Lower Se San 2 Dam (also: Lower Sesan 2 Dam and Han Se San 2 Dam) is a hydroelectric dam under development on the Se San River in Stung Treng Province, northeastern Cambodia. The Se San River is a major tributary of the Mekong River. The dam ...
,
Stung Treng Dam The Stung Treng Dam is a proposed hydroelectric dam on the Mekong River in Stung Treng Province, Cambodia. It would be located on the mainstream of the Lower Mekong River. The project is controversial for several reasons, including its possible ...
* Arable land * Marine resources Total renewable water resources: * (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): * Total: /yr (4%/2%/94%) * Per capita: /yr (2006)


Environmental issues


Natural hazards

* Monsoonal rains (June to November) * Mekong flooding * Occasional droughts


Human impact

Issues * Illegal
logging Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. Logging is the beginning of a supply chain ...
activities throughout the country * rubber tree mono-cultures and strip mining for gold in the eastern highlands * gem mining in the western region along the border with Thailand * destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries, illegal fishing and over-fishing * large scale sand mining in river beds and estuaries of Koh Kong's mangrove marshes affects tidal balance A nascent environmental movement has been noticed by
NGO's A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in h ...
- and it is gaining strength, as the example of local resistance against the building of a Chinese hydro-electric dam in the Areng Valley shows. Cambodia has a bad but improving performance in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 146 out of 180 countries in 2016. This is among the worst in the Southeast Asian region, only ahead of Laos and Myanmar. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations'
Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...
. The environmental areas where Cambodia performs worst on the EPI (i.e. highest ranking) are air quality (148), water resource management (140) and health impacts of environmental issues (137), with the areas of sanitation, environmental impacts of fisheries and forest management following closely. Cambodia has an unusually large expanse of protected areas, both on land and at sea, with the land-based protections covering about 20% of the country. This secures Cambodia a better than average ranking of 61 in relation to biodiversity and habitat, despite the fact deforestation, illegal logging, construction and poaching are heavily deteriorating these protections and habitats in reality, partly fueled by the government's placement of economic land concessions and plantations within protected areas. In November 2017, the U.S. cut funds to help clear unexploded ordnance including land mines and chemical weapons in Cambodia which it had dropped during the Vietnam War. Consequences * Flooding * Deforestation *
Soil erosion Soil erosion is the denudation or wearing away of the upper layer of soil. It is a form of soil degradation. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, and ...
in rural areas * Declining fish stocks * Decreasing access to clean water * Habitat loss and declining biodiversity


International agreements and conventions

Cambodia is party to the following treaties: * Convention on Biological Diversity *
Convention on Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system", in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in th ...
* MARPOL 73/78 * Tropical Timber 94 *
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar sites (wetlands). It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It i ...
Signed, but not ratified: * Law of the Sea


See also


References


External links


National


Ministry of Land Management Urban Planning and Construction



Law on Forestry



Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

Tonle Sap Authority

Economic Land Concession

Environmental Law

An Assessment of Cambodia’s Draft Environmental Impact Assessment Law



International




National Aquaculture Legislation

Cambodia Forestry Outlook Study

FAO UN

Mekong River Commission

National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change (NAPA)



Further reading


Stories from the Mekong

Cardamoms 'one of the crown jewels...

Kampot's forgotten Karst formations
{{Asia topic, Climate of