Classical Sanskrit literature

HOME

TheInfoList

Click Here for Items Related To - Classical Sanskrit literature

OR:

Classical Sanskrit literature on: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Amazon]

Sanskrit literature broadly comprises all

literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...

in the

Sanskrit language Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the

Proto-Indo-Aryan language Proto-Indo-Aryan (sometimes Proto-Indic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans. Being descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (which in turn is descended f ...

known as

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature compiled over the period of the mid- 2nd to mid-1st millennium BCE. It was orally preser ...

, texts in

Classical Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the l ...

as well as some mixed and non-standard forms of Sanskrit. Literature in the older language begins with the composition of the Ṛg·veda between about 1500 and 1000 BCE, followed by other Vedic works right up to the time of the grammarian

Pāṇini , era = ;;6th–5th century BCE , region = Indian philosophy , main_interests = Grammar, linguistics , notable_works = ' ( Classical Sanskrit) , influenced= , notable_ideas= Descriptive linguistics (Devana ...

around 6th or 4th century BCE (after which Classical Sanskrit texts gradually became the norm). Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion, while Classical Sanskrit is the language of many of the prominent texts associated with the major

Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification of ...

, especially

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

, but also

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

, and

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...

. Some Sanskrit Buddhist texts are also composed in a version of Sanskrit often called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit or Buddhistic Sanskrit, which contains many

Middle Indic The Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Middle Indic languages, sometimes conflated with the Prakrits, which are a stage of Middle Indic) are a historical group of languages of the Indo-Aryan family. They are the descendants of Old Indo-Aryan (OIA; ...

( prakritic) elements not found in other forms of Sanskrit. Early works of Sanskrit literature were transmitted through an

oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and Culture, cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Traditio ...

for centuries before they were written down in manuscript form. While most Sanskrit texts were composed in

ancient India According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by ...

, others were composed in

Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the fo ...

East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea ...

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...

. Sanskrit literature is vast and includes

religious scripture Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual pract ...

, various forms of

poetry Poetry (derived from the Greek '' poiesis'', "making"), also called verse, is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language − such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre − to evoke meani ...

(such as epic and lyric),

drama Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance: a play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on radio or television.Elam (1980, 98). Considered as a genre of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has b ...

and narrative prose. It also includes substantial works covering secular and technical sciences and the arts. Some of these subjects include: law and custom,

grammar In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraints, a field that includes doma ...

politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...

economics Economics () is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics anal ...

medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...

astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...

astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...

arithmetic Arithmetic () is an elementary part of mathematics that consists of the study of the properties of the traditional operations on numbers— addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and extraction of roots. In the 19th ...

geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...

music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...

dance Dance is a performing art form consisting of sequences of movement, either improvised or purposefully selected. This movement has aesthetic and often symbolic value. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire ...

dramatics Theatre studies (sometimes referred to as theatrology or dramatics) is the study of theatrical performance in relation to its literary, physical, psychobiological, sociological, and historical contexts. It is an interdisciplinary field which also e ...

, magic and

divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history ...

, and

sexuality Human sexuality is the way people experience and express themselves sexually. This involves biological, psychological, physical, erotic, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. Because it is a broad term, which has varied wit ...

Overview

Literature in the Vedic and the Classical language differ in numerous respects. The Vedic literature that survives is almost entirely religious, being focused on the prayers, hymns to the gods (

devas Devas may refer to: * Devas Club, a club in south London * Anthony Devas (1911–1958), British portrait painter * Charles Stanton Devas (1848–1906), political economist * Jocelyn Devas (died 1886), founder of the Devas Club * Devas (band), ...

sacrifices Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly exis ...

and other concerns of the Vedic religion. The language of this archaic literature (the earliest being the

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only on ...

, is different in many ways (and much less regular) than the "classical" Sanskrit described by later grammarians like

. This literature was transmitted orally during the Vedic period, only later was it written down. Classical Sanskrit literature is more varied and includes the following genres: scripture (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain), epics, court poetry ( kavya), lyric,

, romance, fairytale, fables,

, civil and religious law (

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

), the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sexual intercourse ( kama),

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...

, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.Iyengar, p. 5. On the other hand, the Classical Sanskrit language was much more more formalized and homogeneous, partly due to the influence of Sanskrit grammarians like

and his commentators. Sanskrit was an important language for medieval Indian religious literature. Most pre-modern

Hindu literature Hindu texts are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few of these texts are shared across these traditions and they are broadly considered Hindu scriptures. These ...

and philosophy was in Sanskrit and a significant portion of

Buddhist literature Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts ...

was also written in either classical Sanskrit or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Many of these Sanskrit Buddhist texts were the basis for later translation into the Chinese Buddhist Canon and

Tibetan Canon The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined list of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to sutrayana texts from Early Buddhist schools (mostly Sarvastivada) and Mahayana sources, the Tibetan canon incl ...

. Many

Jain texts Jain literature (Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the c ...

were also written in Sanskrit, like the ''Tattvartha sutra''. Classical Sanskrit also served as a common language of scholarship and elites (as opposed to local vernacular who were only understood regionally). The invasions of northern India by Islamic powers in the 13th century severely damaged Indian Sanskrit scholarship and the dominance of Islamic power over India eventually contributed to the decline of this scholarly language, especially since Muslim rulers promoted Middle Eastern languages. However, Sanskrit remains in use throughout India, and is used in rituals, religious practice, scholarship, art, and other Indian traditions.

Vedic literature

Chronology

Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the literature of

: # Ṛg·vedic Hymns #

Mantra A mantra ( Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ...

s #

Saṃhitā Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".Brāhmaṇa prose # Sūtras The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās comprising the four Vedas: ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.J&B, pp. 1-2.

Ṛg·veda

The Ṛg·veda, the first and oldest of the four Vedas, is the foundation for the others. The Ṛg·veda is made of 1028 hymns named ''sūktas'', composed of verses in strictly regulated meters. These are collected into saṃhitās. There are about 10,000 of these verses that make up the Ṛg·veda. The Ṛg·vedic hymns are subdivided into 10 ''maṇḍala''s, most of which are attributed to members of certain families. Composition of the Ṛg·vedic hymns was entirely oral, and for much of its history, the Ṛg·veda has been transmitted only orally, written down likely no sooner than in the second half of the first millennium of the Common Era.J&B, pp. 2-3.

The later Vedas

The ''Sāmaveda'' is not an original composition: it's almost entirely (except 75) made of stanzas taken from the ''Ṛgveda'' and rearranged with reference to their place in the

Soma Soma may refer to: Businesses and brands * SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects * Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems * SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...

sacrifice. This book is meant to be sung to certain fixed melodies, and may thus be called the book of chants, ''sāman''. The ''

Yajurveda The ''Yajurveda'' ( sa, यजुर्वेद, ', from ' meaning "worship", and ''veda'' meaning "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals.Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in ''The Blackwell C ...

'' like the ''Sāman'' is also largely made of verses taken from the ''Ṛgveda'', but also contains several prose formulas. It is called the book of sacrificial prayers ''yajus''. The last of the four, the ''

Atharvaveda The Atharva Veda (, ' from ' and ''veda'', meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of ''atharvāṇas'', the procedures for everyday life".Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and G ...

'', both by the internal structure of the language used and by comparison with the Ṛg·veda, is a much later work. However, the ''Atharvaveda'' represents a much earlier stage of thought of the Vedic people, being composed mainly of spells and incantations appealing to demons, and is rife with notions of witchcraft, derived from a much earlier period.

Brāhmaṇas

The ''

Brāhmaṇas The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ...

'' (a subdivision within the Vedas) concern themselves with the correct application of

Vedic ritual The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...

, and the duties of the Vedic priest ( hotṛ: 'pourer, worshiper, reciter') the word being derived from ''bráhman'' meaning 'prayer'. They were composed at a period in time by which the Vedic hymns had achieved the status of being ancient and sacred revelations and the language had changed sufficiently so that the priests did not fully understand the Vedic texts. The ''Brāhmaṇas'' are composed in prose, unlike the previous works, forming some of the earliest examples of prose in any

Indo-European language The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Du ...

. The ''Brāhmaṇas'' intend to explain the relation between the sacred text and ritual ceremony. The later part of the ''Brāhmaṇas'' contain material which also discuss

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...

and

. These works were meant to be imparted or studied in the peace and calm of the forest, hence their name the ''Āraṇyaka''s ("Of the forest") The last part of these are books of Vedic doctrine and philosophy that came to be called ''Upaniṣads'' ("sitting down beside"). The doctrines in the Vedic or ''Mukhya'' ''Upaniṣads'' (the main and most ancient ''Upaniṣads)'' were later developed into the ''

Vedānta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, ...

'' (''"end of the Vedas"'') system.

Vedic Sūtras

The Vedic Sūtras were

aphoristic An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...

treatises concerned either with Vedic ritual ( Kalpa

Vedanga The Vedanga ( sa, वेदाङ्ग ', "limbs of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines of Hinduism that developed in ancient times and have been connected with the study of the Vedas:James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Enc ...

) or customary law. They arrived during the later period of the ''Brāhmaṇas'' when a vast mass of ritual and customary details had been accumulated. To address this, the Sūtras are intended to provide a concise survey of Vedic knowledge through short aphoristic passages that could be easily memorized. The Sūtras forego the need to interpret the ceremony or custom, but simply provide a plain, methodical account with the utmost brevity. The word ''sūtra'', derived from the root ''siv-'', 'to sew', thus meaning 'sewn' or 'stitched together' eventually became a byword for any work of aphorisms of similar concision. The sutras in many cases are so terse they cannot be understood without the help of detailed commentaries. The main types of Vedic Sūtras include the '' Śrautasūtras'' (focusing on ritual), ''Śulbasûtra'' (on altar construction), '' Gṛhyasūtras'' which focus on rites of passage and '' Dharmasūtras.''

Hindu religious literature

BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter 1

Most ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, either Epic Sanskrit (the pre-classical language found in the two main Indian epics) or Classical Sanskrit (Paninian Sanskrit). In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.

Michael Witzel Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943) is a German-American philologist, comparative mythologist and Indologist. Witzel is the Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University and the editor of the Harvard Oriental Series (volumes 50–80). Witz ...

, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., , pages 68–71William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , pages 67–77 This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.

Classification

Hindu Sanskrit texts are often subdivided into two classes: * ''

Śruti ''Shruti'' ( sa, श्रुति, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. Manusmriti states: ''Śrutistu vedo vijñeyaḥ'' ...

'' ("that which is heard") are believed to be 'revealed', examples being the

Veda upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

s and the early Upaniṣads. Many scholars include the Bhagavad·Gītā and Āgamas as Hindu scriptures.Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, , page ix-xliiiKlaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pages 46–52, 76–77 Dominic Goodall also includes Bhagavata Purāṇa and

Yājñavalkya Smṛti The ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, IAST: ') is one of the many Dharma-related texts of Hinduism composed in Sanskrit. It is dated between the 3rd to 5th-century CE, and belongs to the Dharmasha ...

. * The ''

Smṛti ''Smriti'' ( sa, स्मृति, IAST: '), literally "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to Śrutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that ...

'' Sanskrit texts are a specific body of

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

texts attributed to an author,Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , pages 2–3 as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Śruti'' in Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , page 656–657 The ''Smṛti'' literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāṅgas, the Hindu epics, the Sūtras and Śāstras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, and the Purāṇas, while some traditions also include Kāvya (courtly poetry), '' Bhāṣyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103–130Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 16–18

Indian Epics

The first traces of

Indian epic poetry Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called ''Kavya'' (or ''Kāvya''; Sanskrit: काव्य, IAST: ''kāvyá''). The '' Ramayana'' and the '' Mahabharata'', which were originally compose ...

are seen in the

Vedic literature upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

, among the certain hymns of the

Ṛgveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...

(which contain dialogues), as well as the Ākhyānas (ballads), Itihāsas ('traditional accounts of past events') and the Purāṇas found in the Vedic

.Winternitz, 1972, pp. 311-12. These poems were originally songs of praise or heroic songs which developed into epic poems of increasing length over time. They were originally recited during important events such as during the Vedic

horse sacrifice Horse sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of a horse, usually as part of a religious or cultural ritual. Horse sacrifices were common throughout Eurasia with the domestication of the horse and continuing up until the spread of Abrahamic ...

(the aśvamedha) or during a funeral. Another related genre were the "songs in praise of men" ( gatha narasamsi), which focus on the glorious deeds of warriors and princes, which also developed into long epic cycles. These epic poems were recited by courtly

bards In Celtic cultures, a bard is a professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise ...

called ''sutas'', who may have been their own

caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultur ...

and were closely related to the warrior caste. There was also a related group of traveling singers called kusilavas. Indian kings and princes seem to have kept bards in their courts which sung the praises of the king, recite poems at festivals and sometimes even recite poetry in battle to embolden the warriors. While there were certainly other epic cycles, only two have survived, the ''

Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuru ...

'' and the '' Rāmāyaṇa''.

''Mahābhārata''

The ''

'' is in a sense not just a single 'epic poem', but can be seen as a ''whole'' body of literature in its own right, a massive collection of many different poetic works built around the heroic tales of the Bharata tribe. Most of this literature was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE by numerous authors, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE. Already in the Ṛgveda, the ''Bharatas'' find mention as a warlike tribe, and the Brāhmaṇas also speak of Bharata, the son of Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā. The core of the ''Mahābhārata'' is a family feud in the royal house of the Kauravas (the descendants of Bharata), leading to a bloody battle at Kurukshetra. Over the centuries, an enormous mass of poetry, myths, legends, secondary tales, moral stories and more was added to the original core story. The final form of the epic is thus a massive 100,000 ślokas across 18+1 books. According to Winternitz, the ''Mahābhārata'' also shows the influence of the Brahmin class, which he argues was engaged in a project of appropriating the poetry of the bards (which was mainly a secular heroic literature) in order to infuse it with their religious theology and values. The most influential part of the ''

'' is the '' Bhagavadgītā,'' which became a central scripture for the Vedanta school and remains widely read today. Another important associated text, which acts as a kind of supplement (''khila'') to the ''

,'' is the '' Harivanhśa,'' which focuses on the figure of

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

''.''

''Rāmāyaṇa''

In contrast to the ''Mahābhārata'', the '' Rāmāyaṇa'' consists of only 24,000 ślokas divided into seven books, and in form is more purely regular, ornate epic poetry, a form of style which is the basis of the later Kāvya tradition. There are two parts to the story of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'', which are narrated in the five genuine books. The first revolves around the events at the court of King

Daśaratha Dasharatha ( Sanskrit: दशरथ, IAST: Daśaratha; born Nemi) was the king of the Kosala kingdom and a scion of the Suryavamsha dynasty in Hinduism. He ruled from this capital at Ayodhya. Dasharatha was the son of Aja and Indumati. He ...

Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and setting of the great epic Ramayana. Ayodhy ...

with one of his wives vying for the succession of the throne to her own son Bharata in place of the one chosen by the king, Rāma. The second part of the epic is full of myth and marvel, with the banished Rāma combating giants in the forest, and slaying thousands of demons. The second part also deals with the abduction of Rāmā's wife, Sītā by king

Rāvaṇa Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic '' Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. He a ...

of Lankā, leading Rāma to carry out to expedition to the island to defeat the king in battle and recover his wife.

Purāṇa

The '' Purāṇa'' are a large class of Hindu scriptures which cover numerous topics such as myth, legends of the Hindu gods,

cosmogony Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of the cosmos or the universe. Overview Scientific theories In astronomy, cosmogony refers to the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used ...

cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher ...

, stories of ancient kings and sages, folk tales, information about temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar and Hindu theology and

. Perhaps the most influential of these texts is the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'', a central text for

Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

theology. Other ''Purāṇas'' center on different gods, like the '' Shiva Purāṇa'' and the '' Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa.''

Later Upaniṣads

The principal Upaniṣads can be considered

since they are included within the ''

Brahmanas The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ...

'' and '' Aranyakas''.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads,'' Oxford University Press, , pages 12-14.Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007). ''Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India'', pp. 258-259. BRILL. However, numerous scriptures titled "Upaniṣads" continued to be composed after the closure of the Vedas proper. Of these later "Upaniṣads" there are two categories of texts: * 95 canonical Upaniṣads which are part of the Muktikā canon. These were composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. * Newer paracanonical Upaniṣads, which were composed through the early modern and modern eras and which deal with numerous non-Vedic topics.

Post-Vedic aphoristic literature

19th-century manuscript of Patanjali's '' Yoga-bhāṣya'', preserved at the University of Pennsylvania. Sūtra style aphoristic literature continued to be composed on numerous topics, the most popular being on the different fields of

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...

.Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, , pages 54–55 The main ''Sūtra'' texts (sometimes also called '' kārikās)'' on

include:Keith (1956), pp. 470-520. * ''Sāṁkhyakārikā'' * '' Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra'' * '' Mīmāṁsā Sūtra'' * ''Nyāya Sūtra'' * '' Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' * ''Yoga Sūtras'' of

Patanjali Patanjali ( sa, पतञ्जलि, Patañjali), also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra, was a Hindu author, mystic and philosopher. Very little is known about him, and while no one knows exactly when he lived; from analysis of his works it i ...

* ''Brahma Sūtra'' (i.e. ''

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, ...

sutra'') * '' Gauḍapāda Kārikā'' * '' Pāśupata Sūtras'' * ''Shiva Sūtras'' * '' Spandakārikā'' * ''Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā'' of Utpaladeva

Commentaries

A manuscript of the Isha Upanishad, the small text in the margins and edges are an unknown scholar's notes and comments in the typical Hindu style of a minor Bhāṣya. The various Sanskrit literature also spawned a large tradition of commentary texts, which were called '' Bhāṣyas'', ''Vṛṭṭis, Tikas, Varttikas'' and other names. These commentaries were written on numerous genres of Sanskrit texts, including on Sūtras, on Upaniṣads and on the Sanskrit epics.Richa Vishwakarma and Pradip Kumar Goswami (2013), ''A review through Charaka Uttara-Tantra'', International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda, Volume 34, Issue 1, pages 17–20 Examples include the '' Yogabhāṣya'' on the ''Yoga Sūtras'', Shankara's ''Brahmasūtrabhāṣya,'' the ''Gitabhāṣya'' and '' Sri Bhāṣya'' of

Ramanuja Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents ...

(1017–1137),

Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana was an Indian philosopher, commentator and logician of the Nyaya School. He is the author of the Commentary, "Nyāya", the first full commentary on the Nyāya-sūtra of Gautama (c. 150 CE), which is itself the foundati ...

's ''Nyāya Sūtra Bhāshya'' and the ''Matharavṛṭṭi'' (on the '' Sāṁkhyakārikā''). Furthermore, over time, secondary commentaries (i.e. a commentary to a commentary) also came to be written.

Tantric literature

There are a varied group of Hindu Tantric scriptures titled Tantras or Agamas. Gavin Flood argues that the earliest date for these Tantric texts is 600 CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.Flood, Gavin D. (1996). ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', pp. 158-159. Cambridge University Press. . Tantric literature was very popular during the "Tantric Age" (c. 8th to the 14th century), a period of time when Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India. According to Flood, all Hindu traditions,

Shaiva Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

, Smarta and

Shakta Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, all ...

(perhaps excepting the Srautas) became influenced by Tantric works and adopted some Tantric elements into their literature.

Other

There are also numerous other types of Hindu religious works, including prose and poetry. Among prose works there are important works like the '' Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha'' (which is important in

Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...

), the '' Yoga-Yājñavalkya'' and the ''

Devi Mahatmya The ''Devi Mahatmya'' or ''Devi Mahatmyam'' ( sa, देवीमाहात्म्यम्, devīmāhātmyam, Glory of the Goddess) is a Hindu philosophical text describing the Goddess as the supreme power and creator of the universe. It is ...

'' (a key

work). When it comes to poetry, there are numerous

stotras ''Stotra'' (Sanskrit: स्तोत्र) is a Sanskrit word that means "ode, eulogy or a hymn of praise."Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'Stotra'' It is a literary genre of In ...

(odes), suktas and stutis, as well as other poetic genres. Some important works of Hindu Sanskrit poetry include the '' Vivekacūḍāmaṇi,'' the ''

Hanuman Chalisa The ''Hanuman Chalisa'' (; ''Chaupai (poetry), Forty chaupais on Hanuman'') is a Hinduism, Hindu devotional hymn (''stotra'') in praise of Hanuman.Rambhadradas 1984pp. 1–8./ref> It was authored by Tulsidas in the Awadhi language, and is his bes ...

'', the '' Aṣṭāvakragītā'', '' Bhaja Govindam,'' and the '' Shiva Tandava Stotra.'' Another group of later Sanskrit Hindu texts are those which focus on

Hatha Yoga Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga which uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel the vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ ''haṭha'' literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some haṭha ...

, and include the '' Dattātreyayogaśāstra'' (13th century), the '' Gorakṣaśataka'' (13th century)'','' the '' Haṭhayogapradīpikā'' (15th century) and the ''Gheraṇḍasaṁhitā'' (17th or 18th-century).

Scientific & Secular literature

Over time, Sanskrit works on the

secular Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...

sciences ( ''śāstra'' or '' vidyā'') were composed on a wide variety of topics. These include: grammar, poetry, lexicography, geometry, astronomy, medicine, worldly life and pleasure, philosophy, law, politics, etc. The learning of these secular sciences took place by way of a

guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan- Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...

expounding the subject orally, using works of

aphorisms An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tr ...

, the

sūtra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an ap ...

texts, which on account of their terseness would be meaningful only to those who knew how to interpret them. The '' bhāṣyas'', the commentaries that followed the sūtras were structured in the style of student-teacher dialogue wherein a question is posed, a partial solution, the '' pūrvapakṣa'', proposed, which is then handled, corrected and the final opinion established, the '' siddhānta''. In time, the bhāṣyas evolved to become more like a lecture. The sūtras were initially regarded as definite. This was later circumvented, in the field of grammar, by the creation of ''vārttikas'', to correct or amend sūtras. Another form often employed was the ''

śloka Shloka or śloka ( sa, श्लोक , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927). in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is ...

'', which was a relatively simple metre, easy to write and remember. Sometimes a mix of prose and verse was used. Some of the later work, such as in law and poetics, developed a much clearer style which avoided a propensity towards obscurity that verse was prone to. The study of these secular works was widespread in India. Buddhist institutions like

Nalanda Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.Himalayan cultures, like

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...

, which not only adopted Buddhist religious literature but also these secular works.Matthew Kapstein.
Other People's Philology: Uses of Sanskrit in Tibet and China, 14th -19th Centuries.
' L'espace du sens. Approches de la philologie indienne/The Space of Meaning.Approaches to Indian Philology., 2018. The Tibetan scholar Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) was a well known scholar of Sanskrit, and promoted the study of these secular disciplines among Tibetans.Gold, Jonathan C. (2007). ''The Dharma's Gatekeepers, Sakya Pandita on Buddhist Scholarship in Tibet'', pp. 8-9. State University of New York Press. The study of Sanskrit grammars and prosody was also practiced in

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...

and

, even when the Pali language focused

Theravada ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school ...

school rose to prominence in those regions.

Linguistic literature

Birch bark manuscript from Kashmir of the ''Rupavatara'', a grammatical textbook based on the Sanskrit grammar of Panini. It was composed by the Sinhalese Buddhist monk Dharmakirti. The manuscript was transcribed in 1663. By the time of the Sūtra period, the Sanskrit language had evolved sufficiently to make increasing parts of the older literature hard to understand, and to recite correctly. This led to the emergence of several classes of works intended to resolve this matter. These works were styled like the religious Sūtras, however they were not religious per se but focused on the linguistic study of the Sanskrit language. The main topics discussed in these works were

(''

vyākaraṇa ''Vyākaraṇa'' (, ) refers to one of the six ancient Vedangas, ancillary science connected with the Vedas, which are scriptures in Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vyakarana" in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Ros ...

''),

phonetics Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...

( ''śikṣā'') and

etymology Etymology () The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the form of words ...

(''

nirukta ''Nirukta'' ( sa, निरुक्त, , "explained, interpreted") is one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Nirukta" in The Illustrated Encycl ...

''). These are traditionally part of the vedāṅga ("limbs of the Veda"), six auxiliary disciplines that developed along with the study of the

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, , pages 744-745 One of the earliest and most important of these works is the Vedic era '' Prātiśākhya Sūtras'', which deal with accentuation, pronunciation, prosody and related matters in order to study the phonetic changes that have taken place in Vedic words.

The Sanskrit grammatical tradition

The early grammatical works of the linguist

Yāska Yāska was an ancient Indian grammarian and linguist st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed)">disputed.html" ;"title="st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed">st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed) Preceding Pāṇini st. 7th–4th century BCE(Controve ...

(some time between 7th and 4th century BCE), such as his ''Nirukta,'' provides the foundation of the study of Sanskrit grammar and etymology. The most influential work for the Indian Sanskrit grammatical tradition is the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' of

, a book of succinct Sūtras that meticulously define the language and grammar of Sanskrit and lay the foundations of what is hereafter the normative form of Sanskrit (and thus, defines Classical Sanskrit). After Pāṇini, other influential works in this field were the '' Vārttikakāra'' of Kātyāyana, the of the grammarian Patañjali and Bhartṛhari's '' Vākyapadīya'' (a work on grammar and

philosophy of language In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language and the relations between language, language users, and the world. Investigations may include inquiry into the nature of Meaning (philosophy of language), meanin ...

). Over time, different grammatical schools developed. There was a tradition of Jain grammarians and Buddhist grammarians and a later tradition of Paninian grammarians.

Lexicography

There were numerous lexicographical works written in Sanskrit, including numerous dictionaries attributed to figures like Bana, Mayura, Murari, and Sriharsha. According to Keith, "of lexica two main classes exist—synonymous, in which words are grouped by subject-matter, and homonymous (anekartha, nanartha), but the important synonymous dictionaries usually include a homonymous section." One of the earliest lexicons (''kośaḥ'') is Amarasiṃha's ''Nāmalingānusāsana'', better known as the '' Amarākośa''. According to Keith, Amarasiṃha, who possibly flourished in the 6th century, was "certainly a Buddhist who knew the Mahāyāna and used Kālidāsa." Other lexica are later works, including the short ''Abhidhānaratnamālā'' of the poet-grammarian Halāyudha (c. 950), Yādavaprakāsha's ''Vaijayantī'', Hemacandra's ''Abhidhānacintāmaṇi'' and ''Anekarthasabdakosha'' of Medinikara (14th century).

Dharma literature

A manuscript of the '' Nāradasmṛti'', a ''Dharmaśāstra'' work which focuses solely on legal matters. The Vedic practice of sūtras pertaining to the correct performance of ritual was extended to other matters such as the performance of duties of all kinds, and in social, moral and legal spheres. These works came to be known as ''Dharmasūtra''s and ''Dharmaśāstras'' in contradistinction to the older '' gṛhyasūtras'' and '' śrautasūtras'' although no distinction was felt initially. Like other sūtras, this was terse prose peppered with a few ślokas or verses in '' triṣtubh'' metre to emphasize a doctrine here and there. More broadly, works in the field of civil and religious law come under the banner of ''dharmaśāstra''. Examples of such works are: * ''Gautamīya dharmaśāstra'' * ''Hāritā dharmaśāstra'' * ''Vasiṣṭha dharmaśāstra'' * ''Baudhāyana dharmaśāstra'' * ''Āpastambīya dharmasūtra'' * ''Vaiṣṇava dharmaśāstra'' * ''Vaikhānasa dharmaśāstra'' The most important of all dharma literature however is the '' Manusmṛiti'', which was composed in verse form, and was intended to apply to all human beings of all castes. The ''Manusmṛiti'' deals with a wide variety of topics including marriage, daily duties, funeral rites, occupation and general rules of life, lawful and forbidden food, impurity and purification, laws on women, duties of husband and wife, inheritance and partition, and much more. There are chapters devoted to the castes, the conduct of different castes, their occupations, the matter of caste admixture, enumerating in full detail the system of social stratification. The Manu·smṛti has been dated to the couple of centuries around the turn of the Common Era. According to recent genetic research, it has been determined that it was around the first century CE that population mixture among different groups in India, prevalent on a large scale from around 2200 BCE, ground to a halt with

endogamy Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific social group, religious denomination, caste, or ethnic group, rejecting those from others as unsuitable for marriage or other close personal relationships. Endogamy is common in many cultu ...

setting in.

Other secular literature

A Nepalese manuscript of the Kamasutra, with Buddhist illustrations. Sanskrit literature also covers a variety of other technical and secular topics including: * The '' Bārhaspatya sūtras'', a work of the materialistic

Charvaka Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embra ...

school of Indian philosophy. * Astrological and

Astronomical Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxi ...

literature (

Jyotisha Jyotisha or Jyotishya (from Sanskrit ', from ' “light, heavenly body" and ''ish'' - from Isvara or God) is the traditional Hindu system of astrology, also known as Hindu astrology, Indian astrology and more recently Vedic astrology. It is one ...

), including the '' Jyotiṣavedāṅga,'' the '' Āryabhaṭīya'', the '' Sūrya Siddhānta,'' and the ''Varāhamihira Bṛhatsaṃhitā.'' These works also discuss other topics like divination and agriculture. * Closely associated with jyotisha are Indian Mathematical works such as the '' Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' * Alchemical literature ( Rasāyana), including the works of

Nāgārjuna Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...

, such as the ''Rasaratanakaram'' * Works on politics, statecraft and other related topics, the most famous of which is the '' Arthaśāstram.'' Others include the '' Nitisara of Kamandaki'', the ''Nitivakyamrta'' of

Somadeva Suri Somadeva Suri was a south Indian Jain monk of the 10th century CE (fl. 959–66, possibly born in Bengal region about 920), author of a work known as "Upasakadyayana" "chapter on lay followers (''upasakas'')", a central work of Digambara ''shrava ...

and the ''Yuki-ḵalpataru'' ascribed to Bhoja. * Works on archery (dhanurveda) and the science of horses (asvāyurveda). * The study of jewels ( ratnaśāstra). * Medical

Ayurvedic Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...

literature, including the great Ayurveda classics such as the '' Carakasaṃhitā'', the '' Suśrutasaṃhitā'' and the works of Vāgbhaṭa''.'' * Kāma Śāstras (works on love, pleasure and sexuality), the most famous of which is the '' Kāma-sūtra.'' Other works include Kokkaka's '' Ratirahasya'' (13th century) and Kalyanamalla's (16th century) ''

Anangaranga The ''Ananga Ranga'' ( hi, अनंगरंग, lit=Stage of Love) or ''Kamaledhiplava'' ( hi, link=no, कमलेधिप्लव, lit=Boat in the Sea of Love) is an Indian sex manual written by Kalyana malla in the 15th or 16th century. Th ...

''. * Indian Architectural literature ( ''vāstuśāstra''), such as the '' Manushyalaya Chandrika'' and the '' Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra.'' * Literature on arts and crafts ('' śilpaśāstra),'' such as works on

sculpture Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable ...

(such as the '' Saṅgītaratnākara''), acting and dance (described in the '' Nāṭyaśāstra)'', painting (''Vishnudharmottara''), etc.

Buddhist literature

In India,

Buddhist texts Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts ...

were often written in

classical Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the l ...

as well as in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit").Edgerton, Franklin (1953). ''Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary'', ''Volume 1,'' pp. 1-3. MOTILAL BANARSIDASS. .Winternitz (1972) pp. 226-227. While the earliest Buddhist texts were composed and transmitted in

Middle Indo-Aryan The Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Middle Indic languages, sometimes conflated with the Prakrits, which are a stage of Middle Indic) are a historical group of languages of the Indo-Aryan family. They are the descendants of Old Indo-Aryan (OIA ...

Prakrits, later Indian Buddhists translated their canonical works into Sanskrit or at least partially Sanskritized their literature.Marcus Bingenheimer, Editor in Chief; Bhikkhu Anālayo and Roderick S. Bucknell, Co-Editors. ''The Madhyama Agama: Middle Length Discourses Vol I (Taishō Volume 1, Number 26).'' Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, Inc. 2013. BDK English Tripiṭaka Series, p. xviWayman, Alex. ''The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 85, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1965), pp. 111-115 (5 pages).Edgerton, Franklin (1953). ''Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary'', ''Volume 1,'' pp. 1-3. MOTILAL BANARSIDASS. . Beginning in the third century, Buddhist texts also began to be composed in classical Sanskrit.Marcus Bingenheimer, Editor in Chief; Bhikkhu Anālayo and Roderick S. Bucknell, Co-Editors. ''The Madhyama Agama: Middle Length Discourses Vol I (Taishō Volume 1, Number 26).'' Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, Inc. 2013. BDK English Tripiṭaka Series, p. xvi Over time, Sanskrit became the main language of Buddhist scripture and scholasticism for certain Buddhist schools in the subcontinent, especially in

North India North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Cen ...

. This was influenced by the rise of Sanskrit as a political and literary

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...

, perhaps reflecting an increased need for elite patronage and a desire to compete with Hindu

Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...

s. The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit is first seen in the work of the great poet and dramatist

Aśvaghoṣa , also transliterated Ashvaghosha, (, अश्वघोष; lit. "Having a Horse-Voice"; ; Chinese 馬鳴菩薩 pinyin: Mǎmíng púsà, litt.: 'Bodhisattva with a Horse-Voice') CE) was a Sarvāstivāda or Mahasanghika Buddhist philosopher ...

(c. 100 CE). The

Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosop ...

school is particularly known for having translated their entire canon into Sanskrit.Prebish, Charles S. (2010) ''Buddhism: A Modern Perspective'', pp. 42-44. Penn State Press. Other Indian Buddhist schools, like the

Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...

Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā� ...

and

Dharmaguptaka The Dharmaguptaka (Sanskrit: धर्मगुप्तक; ) are one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools, depending on the source. They are said to have originated from another sect, the Mahīśāsakas. The Dharmaguptakas had a p ...

schools, also adopted Sanskrit or Sanskritized their scriptures to different degrees.Eltschinger, Vincent
Why did the Buddhists adopt Sanskrit? Open Linguistics 2017; 3: 308–326
egruyter. However, other Buddhist traditions, like

, rejected this trend and kept their canon in Middle Indic languages like Pāli.Wayman, Alex. ''The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 85, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1965), pp. 111-115 (5 pages). Sanskrit also became the most important language in

Mahayana Buddhism ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...

and many

Mahāyāna sūtras The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures (''sūtra'') that are accepted as canonical and as ''buddhavacana'' ("Buddha word") in Mahāyāna Buddhism. They are largely preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibet ...

were transmitted in Sanskrit.Wayman, Alex. ''The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 85, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1965), pp. 111-115 (5 pages). Some of the earliest and most important Mahayana sutras are the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, many of which survive in Sanskrit manuscripts. Indian Buddhist authors also composed Sanskrit treatises and other works on

, logic-epistemology,

jatakas The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is ...

epic poetry An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...

and other topics. While a large number of these works only survive in

Tibetan Tibetan may mean: * of, from, or related to Tibet * Tibetan people, an ethnic group * Tibetan language: ** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard ** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...

and Chinese translations, many key Buddhist Sanskrit works do survive in

manuscript A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand – or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten – as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced i ...

form and are held in numerous modern collections. Sanskrit was the main scholastic language of the Indian Buddhist philosophers in the Vaibhasika, Sautrantika,

Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhis ...

and Yogacara schools.Howladar, Mithun. ''Buddhist Sanskrit Literature : A Discussion.'' Research Guru: Online Journal of Multidisciplinary Subjects Volume-11, Issue-4, March-2018. These include well known figures like Kumāralatā,

, Āryadeva,

Asaṅga Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') (fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed ...

Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...

, Yaśomitra, Dignāga,

Sthiramati Sthiramati (Sanskrit; Chinese:安慧; Tibetan: ''blo gros brtan pa'') or Sāramati was a 6th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-monk. Sthiramati was a contemporary of Dharmapala based primarily in Valābhi university (present-day Gujarat), althoug ...

Dharmakīrti Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th century; Tibetan: ཆོས་ཀྱི་གྲགས་པ་; Wylie: ''chos kyi grags pa''), was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā.Tom Tillemans (2011)Dharmakirti Stanford ...

, Bhāviveka, Candrakīrti, Śāntideva and

Śāntarakṣita (Sanskrit; , 725–788),stanford.eduŚāntarakṣita (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)/ref> whose name translates into English as "protected by the One who is at peace" was an important and influential Indian Buddhist philosopher, particul ...

. Some Sanskrit works which were written by Buddhists also cover secular topics, such as grammar (

), lexicography (koṣa), poetry ( kāvya), poetics (alaṁkāra), and medicine (

Ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...

).2019, Shakya, M. (2019).
The Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Project: Problems and Possibilities.
' Volume 1 Digital Humanities and Buddhism (pp. 111-126). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. Nalanda_university

The

Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by sev ...

(c. 4th–6th centuries) and Pāla (c. 8th–12th centuries) eras saw the growth of large Buddhist institutions such as Nālandā and

Vikramashila Vikramashila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला, IAST: , Bengali:- বিক্রমশিলা, Romanisation:- Bikrômôśilā ) was one of the three most important Buddhist monasteries in India during the Pala Empire, along wit ...

universities, where many fields of knowledge (vidyasthanas) were studied in Sanskrit, including Buddhist philosophy. These universities also drew foreign students from as far away as China. One of the most famous of these was the 7th century Chinese pilgrim

Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...

, who studied Buddhism in Sanskrit at Nalanda and took over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts back to China for his translation project. Chinese pilgrims to India like

Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zho ...

described how in these universities, the study of Buddhist philosophy was preceded by extensive study of Sanskrit language and grammar. During the Indian Tantric Age (8th to the 14th century), numerous Buddhist Tantras and other Buddhist esoteric literature was written in Sanskrit. These tantric texts often contain non-standard Sanskrit, prakritic elements and influences from regional languages like apabhramśa and Old Bengali.Newman, John. "Buddhist Sanskrit in the Kālacakra Tantra." 1988, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies.Davidson, Ronald M. (2004). ''Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement'', pp. 267-277. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. These vernacular forms are often in verses ( dohas) which may be found within esoteric Sanskrit texts.

Jain literature

The earliest

Jain scriptures Jain literature ( Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the c ...

, the Jain Agamas, were composed and orally transmitted in

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

. Later in the

history of Jainism Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''tirthankara'' and revere Rishabhanatha as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilizatio ...

(after about the 8th century CE), Jain authors began composing literature in other languages, especially classical

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

while also retaining the use of Jain Prakrit. The most important Jain Sanskrit work is Umaswati's (c. sometime between the 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) '' Tattvarthasūtra'' (''On the Nature of Reality''). The ''Tattvarthasūtra'' is considered an authoritative work on

Jain philosophy Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in Jainism. One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categories of existence, the living, consciou ...

by all traditions of Jainism and thus it is widely studied. Other influential Jain Sanskrit authors include: Samantabhadra, Pūjyapāda (who wrote the most important commentary to the ''Tattvarthasūtra,'' entitled '' Sarvārthasiddhi)'', Siddhasēna Divākara (c. 650 CE),

Akalanka Akalanka (also known as ''Akalank Deva'' and ''Bhatta Akalanka'') was a Jain logician whose Sanskrit-language works are seen as landmarks in Indian logic. He lived from 720 to 780 A.D. and belonged to the Digambara sect of Jainism. His work ''As ...

, Haribhadra-s ūri (c 8th century) author of the '' Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya'', Hemachandra (c. 1088-1172 CE) who wrote the ''

Yogaśāstra ''Yogaśāstra'' (''lit.'' "Yoga treatise") is a 12th-century Sanskrit text by Hemachandra on Svetambara Jainism. It is a treatise on the "rules of conduct for laymen and ascetics", wherein "yoga" means "ratna-traya" (three jewels), i.e. right be ...

,'' and Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) a scholar of Navya-Nyāya.

Kāvya

Kalidasa composing the '' Meghadūta'' There is a large corpus of classical Sanskrit poetry from India in a variety of genres and forms. According to Siegfried Lienhard in India, the term ''Kāvya'' refers to individual poems, as well as "poetry itself, i.e., all those works that conform to artistic and literary norms." Indian poetry includes epic and lyrical elements. It may be entirely in prose (gadya), entirely in verse (padya) or in a mixed form (misra).Lienhard (1984), pp. 2, 46. Kāvya works are full of

alliteration Alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of initial consonant sounds of nearby words in a phrase, often used as a literary device. A familiar example is "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers". Alliteration is used poetically in various ...

similes A simile () is a figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes differ from other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison words such as "like", "as", "so", or "than", while other metaphors cr ...

, metaphors and other figures of speech. Indians divided poetry into two main categories: poetry that can be seen (drsya, preksya, i.e. drama/theater) and poetry that can only be listened to (sravya). Metrical Indian poetry can also be divided into two other categories: * ''

Mahākāvya Mahākāvya (lit. great kāvya, court epic), also known as ''sargabandha'', is a genre of Indian epic poetry in Classical Sanskrit. The genre is characterised by ornate and elaborate descriptions of scenery, love, battles and so on — in short, ev ...

'' (''Major Poetry''), also known as ''sargabandha,'' which are large poems divided into sections or cantos (sargas) * '' Laghukāvya (Minor Poetry)'', shorter poems or single stanzas According to Lienhard "whereas metrical poetry led a flourishing existence both as mahakavya and laghukavya, prose poems (gadya) and literature in mixed prose and verse (campu) tended to assume the major form. The only exceptions are the panegyric inscriptions (prasasti) and religious epistles (lekha) commonly found in Buddhist societies which may both be composed in the kavya style. Both are written either all in prose or in a mixture of alternately prose and verse and must therefore be counted as belonging to the minor form representing prose kavya or campu - a point that Indian theorists seem to have neglected." Kāvya was employed by court poets in a movement that flourished between c. 200 BCE and 1100 CE. While the Gupta era is considered by many to have seen the highest point of Indian Kāvya, many poems were composed before this period as well as after. Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced the literature of

Burma Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand ...

and the

Malay Archipelago The Malay Archipelago ( Indonesian/ Malay: , tgl, Kapuluang Malay) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the " Malay world," " Nusantara", "East Indies", Indo-Australian Archipelago, Spices Arc ...

. The study of Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced

Tibetan literature Tibetan literature generally refers to literature written in the Tibetan language or arising out of Tibetan culture. Historically, Tibetan has served as a trans-regional literary language that has been used, at different times, from Tibet to Mongoli ...

, and was promoted by

Tibetan Buddhist Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...

scholars like Sakya Pandita. Sanskrit Kāvya poetry also flourished outside the courts, in towns, learned schools and the homes of pandits and other elites and continues to be composed and studied today. Kāvya was often recited in public gatherings, court receptions and in societies which gathered specifically for the study and enjoyment of poetry. Kavis (Kāvya poets) also competed with each other for rewards and for the support of elites and kings (who often appointed court poets). Kavis were highly educated and many of them would have been pandits with knowledge of other sciences such as grammar, lexicography and other fields. Indian authors held that an important quality of these poets was said to be ''pratibhā'', poetic imagination. The beginnings of Kāvya is obscure. Lienhard traces its beginnings to "the close of the Late Vedic Period (about 550 B.C.)...as this was a time that saw the slow emergence of poetic forms with characteristics of their own, quite different both functionally and structurally from previous models." The earliest Kāvya poems were short stanzas in the minor form ''( laghukāvya),'' sometimes just being one stanza poems (muktakas)''.'' Few of these early works have survived''.''

Laghukāvya

''Laghukāvya'' mainly refers to short poems, which can be single stanza (muktaka), double stanza poems (yugmaka), and several-stanza poems (kulakas). Short poetry was also termed ''khandakavya'' and a collection of stanzas or anthology was called a ''kosa''.Lienhard (1984), pp. 65-66. The earliest ''laghukāvyas'' were in prakrits, but some also began to be written in Sanskrit in time. The earliest ''laghukāvyas'' where muktakas (also sometimes called gāthā), single stanzas. These were most commonly lyrical nature poems, lyrical love poems, religious poems or reflective didactic poems.Lienhard (1984), pp. 71-75. According to Lienhard "muktaka poetry generally paints miniature pictures and scenes, or else it carefully builds up a description of a single theme." Some of the earliest of these early poems are found in the Buddhist canon, which contain two the verse anthologies: the '' Theragāthā'' (''Verses of the Elder Monks'') and ''

Therīgāthā The ''Therīgāthā'', often translated as ''Verses of the Elder Nuns'' (Pāli: ''therī'' elder (feminine) + ''gāthā'' verses), is a Buddhist text, a collection of short poems of early enlightened women who were elder nuns (having experienced ...

(Verses of the Elder Nuns).'' Only the Pali versions of these survive, but they also existed in Prakrit and Sanskrit. There are also some surviving stanzas which are attributed to important figures like the grammarian Panini, the scholar Patañjali, and

Vararuci Vararuci (also transliterated as Vararuchi) () is a name associated with several literary and scientific texts in Sanskrit and also with various legends in several parts of India. This Vararuci is often identified with Kātyāyana. Kātyāyana is ...

, but these attributions are uncertain. Some important Sanskrit poets whose collections of short poems have survived include Bhartṛhari ( fl. c. 5th century CE), known for his '' Śatakatraya,'' Amaru (7th century), author of the '' Amaruśataka'' (which mainly contains erotic poetry) and Govardhana (12th century), author of the '' Āryāsaptaśatī''. There are numerous anthologies which collect short Sanskrit poetry from different authors, these works are our main source of short Sanskrit poems.Lienhard (1984), p. 87. One widely celebrated anthology is the ''Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa'' (''Anthology of Well Said Jewels'') of the Buddhist monk and anthologist

Vidyakara Vidyakara (c. 1050–1130) was a Buddhist scholar and poetry anthologist, noted for the Sanskrit poetry compilation ''Subhashitaratnakosha'' (IAST: ''Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa''), which has been considered the "most celebrated" anthology of Sansk ...

(c. 1050–1130). Other important anthologies include: Jalhana's ''Subhāṣitamuktāvalī'' (13th century), Sridharadasa's ''Saduktikarṇāmṛta'' (1205), Śārṅgadharapaddhati (1363) and Vallabhadeva's ''Subhāṣitāvalī'' (''Chain of Beautiful Sayings'', c. 16th century).

Samghatas and Khandakavyas

In between muktaka and mahākāvya there are medium length Sanskrit poems which are linked stanzas (between eight and one hundred stanzas) using one Sanskrit metre and one theme (such as the six Indian seasons, love and eros, and nature). They are variously called "series of stanzas" (samghata) or khandakavya. Examples of these medium length poems include: the ''

Ṛtusaṃhāra ''Ṛtusaṃhāra'', often written ''Ritusamhara'', (Devanagari: ऋतुसंहार; ऋतु , "season"; संहार , "compilation") is a long poem or mini-epic in Sanskrit attributed to Kalidasa. The poem has six cantos for the six ...

,'' the ''Ghatakarpara Kavyam,'' and the '' Meghadūta'' of

Kālidāsa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and ...

(the most famous of all Sanskrit poets) which popularized the sandeśa kāvya (messenger poem), Jambukavi's ''Candraduta'' (8th to 10th century), Jinasena's ''Parsvabhyudaya'' (a

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

work),

Vedanta Desika Vedanta Desikan (1268–1369), also rendered Vedanta Desikar, Swami Vedanta Desikan, and Thoopul Nigamaantha Desikan, was an Indian polymath who wrote philosophical as well as religious and poetical works in several languages, including Sa ...

's '' Hansasandeśa'', the '' Kokila Sandeśa'', and Rūpa Gosvāmin's '' Haṃsadūta'' (16th century). Another genre of medium length poems were panegyrics like the '' Rājendrakarṇapūra'' of Sambhu. Religious medium length ''kāvya'' style poems (often called

or stutis) were also very popular and they show some similarities with panegyrics. According to Lienhard, some of the figures which are most widely written about in medium length religious poems include: "

Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...

Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...

Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this tra ...

(or Devi), Ganesa,

Krsna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one o ...

(Govinda), Laksmi, Nrsimha,

Radha Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also d ...

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bei ...

Sarasvati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a ...

, Siva,

Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a ...

, the Tathagatas, the Tirthamkaras or Jinas, Vardhamana

Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6 ...

and Visnu." Only some of the Sanskrit hymns to the gods can be considered literary ''kāvya'', since they are truly artistic and follow some of the classic kāvya rules. According to Lienhard, the literary hymns of the Buddhists are the oldest of these.

is said to have written some, but they are all lost.Lienhard (1984), p. 132 Two Buddhist hymns of the poet Mātṛceṭa* (c. 70 to 150 CE), the ''Varṇārhavarṇa Stotra'' or ''Catuḥśataka'' and the ''Satapancasataka'' or ''Prasadapratibha ((Stotra) on the Splendour of Graciousness (of the Buddha))'' have survived in Sanskrit. They are some the finest Buddhist stotras and were very popular in the Buddhist community in India. There are also some Buddhist stotras attributed to other Buddhist masters like

Nagarjuna Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...

(2nd-3rd century CE), Chandragomin (5th century) and Dignāga as well as two Buddhist stotras by King Harshavadana. Some important later Buddhist stotras are ''Sragdharastotra'' (about 700) by Sarvajñamitra, Vajradatta's ''Lokesvara-sataka'' (9th century), the tantric '' Mañjuśrīnāma-saṃgīti'' and Ramacandra Kavibharati's 15th century '' Bhaktisataka'' (which is influenced by the

Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th cent ...

). There are also many Sanskrit Jaina stotras, most of which are dedicated to the Jain

Tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a ' ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the '' dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable pass ...

s. They include the ''Bhaktacamarastotra'' by Manatunga (7th century), Nandisena's ''Ajitasantistava,'' the ''Mahavirastava'' by Abhayadeva (mid 11th century) and the stotras of Ramacandra (12th century). There are numerous literary Hindu hymns which were written after the time of Kālidāsa. Some of the most important ones are Bāṇabhaṭṭa's '' Caṇḍīśataka,'' the '' Suryasataka'' by

Mayurbhatta Mayurbhatta was a 7th-century Sanskrit poet and scholar, who was brother-in-law of Banabhatta, the court poet of Harshavardhana, who is noted for having written Surya Satakam. Mayurbhatta was suffering from leprosy. He performed penance at fam ...

, numerous hymns attributed to

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

(though the majority of these were likely not composed by him), the ''Mahimnastava'', the Shaiva ''Pañcāśati'' (14th century), Abhinavagupta's Shaiva stotras'','' the southern '' Mukundamala'' and ''

Narayaniyam ''Narayaniyam'' is a medieval-era Sanskrit text, comprising a summary study in poetic form of the ''Bhāgavata Purana''. It was composed by Melputhur Narayana Bhattathiri, (1560–1666 AD) one of the celebrated Sanskrit poets in Kerala. Even thou ...

,'' the '' Krishnakarṇāmrutam'', and the poems of Nilakantha Diksita, Jagannātha Paṇḍitarāja,

Gangadevi Gangadevi, also known as Gangambika, was a 14th-century princess and Sanskrit-language poet of the Vijayanagara Empire of present-day India. She was wife of Kumara Kampana, the son of the Vijayanagara king Bukka Raya I (c. 1360s-1370s). Gang ...

, Jayadeva,

Rupa Goswami Rupa Goswami ( sa, रूप गोस्वामी, bn, রূপ গোস্বামী, ; 1489–1564) was a devotional teacher ( guru), poet, and philosopher of the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. With his brother Sanatana Goswami, he i ...

, and

Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa Mṛgarājalakśman, also known as Nishānārāyana, was a Sanskrit scholar and writer who belonged to the ''Pancharatra'' Rarhi branch of ''Sandilya'' family of Brahmins. He lived before 800 A.D. for he is cited by Vāmana ...

(17th century).

Mahākāvya

According to Lienhard, the most important feature of ''mahākāvya'' (Long poems) is that they are divided into chapters or cantos (sargas). Fully versified ''Mahākāvyas'' (called sargabandhas) are written in many different metres. ''Mahākāvyas'' may also be written fully in prose or in a mixture of verse and prose (mostly called campu). Sargabandhas commonly center around a

hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ''actor''), ''her ...

and also include

villains A villain (also known as a " black hat" or "bad guy"; the feminine form is villainess) is a stock character, whether based on a historical narrative or one of literary fiction. ''Random House Unabridged Dictionary'' defines such a character ...

. They almost never end in a tragic manner. Indian epic poetry like the '' Rāmāyaṇa'' forms an important influence on Sanskrit ''mahakāvya'' literature. The oldest extant ''mahākāvyas'' are those of the Buddhist poet and philosopher

(c. 80 – c. 150 CE). His '' Buddhacarita'' (''Acts of the Buddha'') was influential enough to be translated into both Tibetan and Chinese. The Chinese pilgrim

(635–713 CE) writes that the ''Buddhacarita'' was "...extensively read in all the five parts of India and in the countries of the South Sea (Sumātra, Jāva and the neighbouring islands)...it was regarded as a virtue to read it in as much as it contained the noble doctrine in a neat compact form."J.K. Nariman: Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism, Bombay 1919
Aśvaghoṣa and his School
Another ''mahākāvya'' by

is the ''Saundarananda'', which focuses on the conversion of

Nanda Nanda may refer to: Indian history and religion * Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE ** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire ** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...

, Buddha's half-brother.

The great mahākāvyas

, called by many the

Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...

of India, is said to have been the finest master of the Sanskrit poetic style. Arthur Macdonell describes this great poets' words as having a "firmness and evenness of sound, avoiding harsh transitions and preferring gentle harmonies; the use of words in their ordinary sense and clearness of meaning; the power to convey sentiment; beauty, elevation, and the employment of metaphorical expressions".

's greatest Kāvyas are the ''

Raghuvaṃśa (Devanagari: , lit. 'lineage of Raghu') is a Sanskrit epic poem ('' mahakavya'') by the celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Though an exact date of composition is unknown, the poet is presumed to have flourished in the 5th century CE. It narr ...

'' and the '' Kumārasambhava.'' This ''

'' (''The Genealogy of

Raghu Raghu () is a ruler of the Suryavamsha dynasty in Hinduism. According to the '' Raghuvamsha'', he is the son of King Dilīpa and Queen Sudakshina. His successors styled themselves as belonging to the eponymous Raghuvamsha dynasty, or the ' ...

'') chronicles the life of Rāma alongside his forefathers and successors in 19 cantos, with the story of Rāma agreeing quite closely that in the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. The narrative moves at a rapid pace, is packed with apt and striking similes and has much genuine poetry, while the style is simpler than what is typical of a mahakāvya. The ''Raghuvaṃśa'' is seen to meet all the criteria of a ''mahākāvya'', such as that the central figure should be noble and clever, and triumphant, that the work should abound in '' rasa'' and ''bhāva'', and so on. There are more than 20 commentaries of this work that are known. The '' Kumārasambhava'' (''The Birth of Kumāra'') narrates the story of the courtship and wedding of

Śiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hi ...

and Pārvatī, and the birth of their son, Kumāra. The poem finishes with the slaying of the demon Tāraka, the very purpose of the birth of the warrior-god. The ''Kumārasambhava'' showcases the poet's rich and original imaginative powers making for abundant poetic imagery and wealth of illustration. Again, more than 20 commentaries on the Kumāra·sambhava have survived. These two great poems are grouped by Indian tradition along with four more works into "the six great mahākāvyas". The other four greats are:

Bhāravi Bharavi () was a 6th century Indian poet known for his epic poem '' Kirātārjunīya'', one of the six ''mahakavyas'' in classical Sanskrit. Time and place As with most Sanskrit poets, very few concrete details are available about Bharavi's lif ...

's (6th century CE) '' Kirātārjunīya'', Māgha's (c. 7th Century CE) ''Śiśupālavadha'', the '' Bhaṭṭikāvya'' (also known as ''Rāvaṇavadha'') and

Śrīharṣa Shri-harsha (IAST: Śrīharṣa) was a 7th century Indian philosopher and poet. Shri Harsha's works concern Advaita Vedanta, Nyaya and other themes in Hindu Philosophy. Early life Śrīharṣa was the son of Śrīhira and Mamalladevī. His fath ...

's (12th century CE) '' Naiṣadhīyacarita,'' which is the most extensive and difficult of the great mahākāvyas (and contains many references to Indian philosophy)''.'' Over time, various commentaries where also composed on these poems, especially the ''Naiṣadhīyacarita.''

Later mahākāvyas

Between

's time and the 18th century, numerous other sargabandhas were composed in the classic style, such as Mentha's ''Hayagrīvavadha'' (6th century), King Pravarasena II's ''Setubandha,'' the Sinhalese poet Kumaradasa's ''Janakiharana,'' Rajanaka Ratnakara's '' Haravijaya,'' the ''Nalodaya,'' the Buddhist Sivasvamin's ''Kapphinabhyudaya'' (9th century), and Buddhaghosa's ''Padyacudamani'' (a life of the Buddha, c. 9th century). Later sargabandhas tended to be more heavily loaded with technical complexity, erudition and extensive decoration. Authors of these later works include the 12th century Kashmiri Shaivas Kaviraja Rajanaka Mankha and Jayaratha, Jayadeva, author of the innovative and widely immitated '' Gitagovinda,'' Lolimbaraja's ''Harivilasa'' (mid 11th century), the Shaivite ''Bhiksatana(kavya)'' of Gokula, Krsnananda's 13th century ''Sahrdayananda,'' and the numerous works of '' Ramapanivada.'' After the 8th century, many sophisticated Jain mahākāvyas were written by numerous Jain poets (mainly from

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

), including Jatasimhanandi's ''Varangacarita'' (7th century), Kanakasena Vadiraja Suri's ''Yasodharacarita'', and the ''Ksatracudamani'' by Vadibhasimha Odayadeva. Jain authors also wrote their own versions of the ''Ramayana'' with Jain themes, such as the ''Padmapurana'' of Ravisena (678 A.D.). Other later mahākāvyas are poems based on historical figures which embellish history with classic poetic themes such as Parimala's '' Navasāhasāṅkacarita,'' Bilhana's '' Vikramāṅkadevacarita'' (11th century) and ''Madhurāvijayam'' (''The Conquest of

Madurai Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration i ...

'', c. 14th-century) by

, which chronicles the life a prince of the

Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Mahar ...

and his invasion and conquest of the Madurai Sultanate. Some later poems focused on specific poetic devices, some of the most popular being

paronomasia A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic ...

(slesa) and ambiguous rhyme (yamaka). For example, the poems of Vasudeva (10th century), such as ''Yudhiṣṭhira-vijaya'' and ''Nalodaya'', were all yamaka poems while the ''Ramapalacarita'' of Sandhyakara Nandin is a slesakavya. One final genre is the Śāstrakāvya, a kāvya which also contains some didactic content which instructs on some ancient science or knowledge. Examples include Halayudha's ''Kavirahasya'' (a handbook for poets), Bhatta Bhima's ''Arjunaravaniya'' (which teaches grammar) and Hemacandra's ''Kumarapalacarita'' (grammar).

Prose mahākāvya

While most early mahākāvyas were all in verse, the term mahākāvya could also be applied to any long prose poem and these became more popular after the 7th century, when the great masters of prose (gadya) lived. These are Daṇḍin (author of the ''Daśakumāracarita'') Subandhu (author of the '' Vāsavadattā'') and Bāṇabhaṭṭa (author of '' Kādambari'' and '' Harshacarita''). Prose mahākāvyas replaced virtuosity in metre with highly complex and artistic sentences. Other important writers of Sanskrit prose poems include Bhūṣaṇa bhaṭṭa, Dhanapala (the Jain author of the '' Tilakamañjari''), and Vadibhasimha Odayadeva (author of the '' Gadyacintāmaṇi'').

Campū

Campū (also known as ''gadyapadyamayi'') is a poetic genre which contains both verse and prose. This genre was rare during the first millennium CE, but later grew in popularity, especially in South India.Lienhard (1984), p. 265 The earliest Sanskrit example of this genre is Trivikramabhatta's ''Nalacampu'' (or ''Damayanticampu'', c. 10th century). While many other Sanskrit works also contain a mixture of verse and prose, like Āryaśūra's ''Jātakamālā'', Lienhard notes that these are not true campūs. This is because "in true campū there is a calculated balance between prose that is as perfect as possible and stanzas in the genuine kavya style." Some important campūs include Somaprabha Suri's '' Yaśastilakacampū'' (9th century, Jain), Haricandra's ''Jivandharacampū'' (Jain), the ''Ramayanacampū,'' Divakara's ''Amogharaghavacampu,'' the 17th century female poet Tirumalamba's ''Varadambikaparinaya,'' Venkatadhvarin's ''Visvagunadarsacampu,'' Jiva Gosvamin's voluminous ''Gopalacampu,'' and Raghunathadasa's ''Muktacaritra.''

Works on prosody and poetics

There are also numerous Sanskrit works which discuss prosody and

poetics Poetics is the theory of structure, form, and discourse within literature, and, in particular, within poetry. History The term ''poetics'' derives from the Ancient Greek ποιητικός ''poietikos'' "pertaining to poetry"; also "creative" an ...

. The earliest work which discusses poetics is Bharatamuni's '' Nāṭyaśāstra'' (200 B.C. to 200 A.D.), a work which mainly deals with drama. Piṅgalá (

fl. ''Floruit'' (; abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for "they flourished") denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indicatin ...

300–200 BCE) authored the '' Chandaḥśāstra'', an early

treatise on prosody. Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri lists four main school of Indian poetics and their main figures: * The Alaṅkāra school which draws on Bhāmaha's (c. 7th century) ''Kāvyālaṅkāra,'' Udbhaṭa's ''Alankarasamgraha'' and Rudrata's ''Kāvyālaṅkāra.'' * The Riti school - Daṇḍin's (fl. 7th–8th century) '' Kāvyādarśa'' is influenced by the Alaṅkāra school and introduces the concept of '' guna''. The '' Kāvyādarśa'' was very influential for Vāmana, the 8th century founder of the Riti school and author of the ''Kāvyālaṅkāra Sūtra.'' * The Rasa school draws on the ''Nāṭyaśāstra's'' aphorism on rasa (emotional flavor). The key figure of this school is Bhaṭṭanāyaka, author of the ''Hṛdayadarpaṇa.'' * The Dhvani school which makes use of Anandavardhana's (c. 820–890 CE) '' Dhvanyāloka'' and the commentary of

Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianRe-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, pag ...

(who also wrote the ''Abhinavabharati'', a commentary on the ''Nāṭyaśāstra''). This school emphasizes "aesthetic suggestion" (''dhvani''). Later influential works on poetics include Mammaṭa's (11th century) '' Kāvyaprakāśa,'' the writings on poetics by

Kshemendra Kshemendra (; ) was an 11th-century Sanskrit polymath- poet, satirist, philosopher, historian, dramatist, translator and art-critic from Kashmir in India. Biography Kshemendra was born into an old, cultured, and affluent family. His fat ...

, Hemacandra's ''Kavyanusasana'', Vagbhata's ''Vagbhatalankara'', and Rupa Gosvamin's ''Ujjvalanilamani''.

Subhāṣita

Outside of Kāvya proper are also numerous poetic works (often called subhāṣita, "well said") which can be classified as gnomic poetry and didactic poetry.Keith (1956), p. 227. These are mainly poems which contain some wise saying,

lesson (often ethical), popular maxim or a

proverb A proverb (from la, proverbium) is a simple and insightful, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic language. A proverbial phrase or a proverbia ...

(lokavakya). These are thousands of Subhāṣitas on many themes. The ''

Dharmapada The Dhammapada (Pāli; sa, धर्मपद, Dharmapada) is a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures. The original version of the Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka ...

'' is one important early collection of aphorisms. There are also many didactic works attributed to Cāṇakya (but actually written by numerous authors), such as the ''Rājanītisamuccaya, Cāṇakyanīti, Cāṇakyarājanīti, Vṛddha-Cāṇakya'', and the ''Laghu-Cāṇakya''. Another important collection of gnomic sayings is the ''Nisataka'' of Bhartrhari. Later examples of this genre include the Jain Amitagati's ''Subhasitaratnasaridoha'', Kṣemendra's ''Cārucaryā, Darpadalana'' and ''Samayamatrka,'' Kusumadeva's ''Dṛṣṭāntaśataka'', Dya Dviveda's ''Nitimañjari'' (1494), and Vallabhadeva's '' Subhāṣitāvalī'' (15th century). There are also numerous anthologies of subhāṣita, such as the '' Cātakāṣṭaka''.

Sanskrit drama

Shakunthala ''Shakuntala'' is a 1965 Indian Malayalam-language film, directed and produced by Kunchacko. The film stars Prem Nazir, Sathyan, Thikkurissy Sukumaran Nair and Prema. The film had musical score by G. Devarajan and K. Raghavan. The film is ada ...

'' Indian classical drama (''dṛśya'', ''nātaka'') was also mainly written in Sanskrit and there are many examples of this Sanskrit literary genre. Bharata's '' Nāṭyaśāstra'' (3rd century CE) is the earliest work which discusses Sanskrit

dramaturgy Dramaturgy is the study of dramatic composition and the representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. The term first appears in the eponymous work ''Hamburg Dramaturgy'' (1767–69) by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Lessing composed th ...

. Sanskrit drama focuses on the sentiments and on heroic characters. Classically, the endings are happy, never tragic. References to Sanskrit drama are found throughout ancient Sanskrit texts, including the great epics. Some of the earliest Sanskrit dramas are those of

(only a fragment of his '' Śāriputraprakaraṇa'' survives) and the many plays of Bhāsa (c.1st century BCE), most of which are based on the two great epics (''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana'').

Kalidasa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and t ...

is widely considered to be the greatest Sanskrit playwright, hailed for his linguistic mastery and economy of style. He wrote three plays: '' Vikramōrvaśīyam,

Mālavikāgnimitram The ''Mālavikāgnimitram'' (Sanskrit, meaning ''Mālavikā and Agnimitra'') is a Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa. Based on some events of the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga, it is his first play. ''Mālavikāgnimitram'' tells the story of the love of ...

, Abhijñānaśākuntalam.'' Other important plays include the ''Mṛcchakaṭika'' (''The Little Clay Cart'', 5th century) and the '' Mudrārākṣasa.'' Harṣa, a 7th-century Indian emperor, was also known as a great playwright with a simple and delicate style. His ''

Ratnavali ''Ratnavali'' (Precious Garland) is a Sanskrit drama about a beautiful princess named Ratnavali, and a great king named Udayana. It is attributed to the Indian emperor Harsha (606–648). It is a Natika in four acts. One of the first textual ...

, Nagananda,'' and '' Priyadarsika'' are well known Sanskrit dramas. The ''Mattavilāsaprahasana'' (''A Farce of Drunken Sport'') is a short one-act

play. It is one of the two great one act plays written by Pallava King Mahendravarman I (571– 630CE) in the beginning of the seventh century in Tamil Nadu. Bhavabhuti (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa. Other major Sanskrit playwrights include Visakhadatta,

, Murari, Rajasekhara, Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra. Later Sanskrit dramaturgical texts also continued to be written in the second millennium, such as the ''

Shilparatna {{Use Indian English, date=December 2019 Shilparatna is a classical text on traditional South Indian representational-performing arts. It is particularly influential in painting and theatrical performance. It was authored by Srikumara in 16th cen ...

'' which discusses dance and drama.

Other Sanskrit narratives

There are various classical Sanskrit collections of fables one of the most influential of which is the early '' Pañcatantra,'' a work that was widely immitated''.'' Other works include the '' Hitopadeśa'' and Srivara's ''Kathakautuka.'' Buddhist

Jatakas The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is ...

(tales of the Buddha's past lives) is a similar genre and includes the '' Divyāvadāna'', Āryaśūra's '' Jātakamālā'' (a collection of Buddhist fables)'','' and Ksemendra's various works like the ''Avadānakalpalatā.'' Folk tale (or

fairy tale A fairy tale (alternative names include fairytale, fairy story, magic tale, or wonder tale) is a short story that belongs to the folklore genre. Such stories typically feature magic, enchantments, and mythical or fanciful beings. In most cult ...

) collections include the '' Vetala Pañcaviṃśati,'' ''Siṃhāsana Dvātriṃśikā'', and the ''Suktasaptati''. There is also Somadeva's '' Kathāsaritsāgara'' (''Ocean of the Streams of Stories''). There are also poetic historical chronicles like the '' Rajatarangini'' of Kalhana. Hemacandra's (1088-1172) ''Trisastisalakapurusacaritra'' is one example of Jain didactic narrative in Sanskrit. There are also abridged retellings of more ancient lost texts, such as Budhasvāmin's '' Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha''.

Modern Sanskrit literature

Literature in Sanskrit continues to be produced. These works, however, have a very small readership. In the introduction to ''Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets'' (1992), Radhavallabh Tripathi writes: Most current Sanskrit poets are employed as teachers, either pandits in ''pāṭhaśāla''s or university professors. However, Tripathi also points out the abundance of contemporary Sanskrit literature: Similarly, , in ''Post-Independence Sanskrit Literature: A Critical Survey'', estimates that more than 3000 Sanskrit works were composed in the period after Indian Independence (i.e., since 1947) alone. Further, much of this work is judged as being of high quality, both in comparison to classical Sanskrit literature, and to modern literature in other Indian languages.S. Ranganath (2009)
''Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka''
, p. 7:
Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan: Since 1967, the

Sahitya Akademi The Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, is an organisation dedicated to the promotion of literature in the languages of India. Founded on 12 March 1954, it is supported by, though independent of, the Indian government. Its of ...

, India's national academy of letters, has had an

award An award, sometimes called a distinction, is something given to a recipient as a token of recognition of excellence in a certain field. When the token is a medal, ribbon or other item designed for wearing, it is known as a decoration. An awar ...

for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009,

Satyavrat Shastri Satya Vrat Shastri (29 September 1930 – 14 November 2021) was an Indian Sanskrit scholar, writer, grammarian and poet. He wrote three Mahakavyas, three Khandakavyas, one Prabandhakavyas and one Patrakavya and five works in critical writing ...

became the first Sanskrit author to win the

Jnanpith Award The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...

, India's highest literary award. Vidyadhar Shastri wrote two epic poems (''Mahakavya''), seven shorter poems, three plays and three songs of praise (, he received the ''Vidyavachaspati'' award in 1962. Some other modern Sanskrit composers include Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra (known as ''Triveṇī Kavi'', composer of short stories and several other genres of Sanskrit literature),

Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Jagadguru Ramanandacharya Swami Rambhadracharya (born Pandit Giridhar on 14 January 1950) is an Indian Hindu spiritual leader, educator, Sanskrit scholar, polyglot, poet, author, textual commentator, philosopher, composer, singer, playwrigh ...

(known as ''Kavikularatna'', composer of two epics, several minor works and commentaries on ''Prasthānatrayī''). Another great Sanskrit epic that remained largely unrecognised till lately is "Dhruv Charitra" written by Pandit Surya Dev Mishra in 1946. He won laurels of appreciation by renowned Hindi and Sanskrit critics like Hazari Prasad Dwiedi, Ayodhya Singh Upadhyay "Hariaudh", Suryakant tripathi "Nirala", Laldhar Tripathi "Pravasi".Mishra, Mayank. Karma ka Pujari. Chandigarh : Unistar Publications, 2010. Print

Notes

Glossary

Brahmic notes

References

Bibliography

* Macdonell, Arthur Anthony, A History of Sanskrit Literature, New York 1900 * * Winternitz, M. ''A History of Indian Literature.'' Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907) * Winternitz, M. ''A History of Indian Literature Vol. I. Introduction, Veda, National Epics, Puranas and Tantras.'' Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972 * Winternitz, M. ''A History of Indian Literature Vol. II. Buddhist literature and Jaina literature.'' Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972 * * Bhattacharji Sukumari, ''History of Classical Sanskrit Literature,'' Sangam Books, London, 1993, * Gonda, Jan (ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature'', Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden. * * * * * * * * S. Ranganath
''Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka''

Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan Central Sanskrit University, formerly Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, is a central university located in New Delhi, India, to promote Sanskrit. Established in 1970, it functions under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government o ...

, 2009. *
Studies on Modern Sanskrit Writings: Ādhunika-saṃskṛta-sāhityānuśīlanam.
Papers Presented in the Section on Modern Sanskrit Writings (Proceedings of the 15th World Sanskrit Conference, 2012)''. Edited by Jürgen Hanneder and Måns Broo with an introduction by R. V. Tripathi. * * * * * Lienhard, Siegfried (1984). ''A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit'' (A History of Indian Literature Vol. III) Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. * Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). ''A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

External links

a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.

Vedabase.net
Vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English.
Official page
of the Clay Sanskrit Library, publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials.
Sanskrit Documents Collection
Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc., and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.
MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance
b

Sanskrit Literature
at the

Encyclopedia of Fantasy ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'' is a 1997 reference work concerning fantasy fiction, edited by John Clute and John Grant. Other contributors include Mike Ashley, Neil Gaiman, Diana Wynne Jones, David Langford, Sam J. Lundwall, Michael S ...

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sanskrit Literature Indian literature by language Indian literature * * Medieval poetry History of literature in India Indian religious texts Vedas Ancient literature Epic poetry Oral literature Vedic hymns Nepalese literature by language

Overview

Vedic literature

Chronology

Ṛg·veda

The later Vedas

Brāhmaṇas

Vedic Sūtras

Hindu religious literature

Classification

Indian Epics

''Mahābhārata''

''Rāmāyaṇa''

Purāṇa

Later Upaniṣads

Post-Vedic aphoristic literature

Commentaries

Tantric literature

Other

Scientific & Secular literature

Linguistic literature

The Sanskrit grammatical tradition

Lexicography

Dharma literature

Other secular literature

Buddhist literature

Jain literature

Kāvya

Laghukāvya

Samghatas and Khandakavyas

Mahākāvya

The great mahākāvyas

Later mahākāvyas

Prose mahākāvya

Campū

Works on prosody and poetics

Subhāṣita

Sanskrit drama

Other Sanskrit narratives

Modern Sanskrit literature

See also

Notes

Glossary

Brahmic notes

References

Bibliography

External links