China, officially the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China (PRC), is a unitary
sovereign state in
East Asia
.svg/500px-East_Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
East Asia and the world's most populous country,
with a population of around 1.404 billion.[13] Covering
approximately 9,600,000 square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi),
it is the third- or fourth-largest country by total area,[k][19]
depending on the source consulted.
China

China also has the most neighbor
countries in the world. Governed by the Communist Party of China, it
exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions,
four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and
Chongqing), and the special administrative regions of
Hong Kong

Hong Kong and
Macau.
China

China emerged as one of the world's earliest civilizations, in the
fertile basin of the
Yellow River

Yellow River in the
North China

North China Plain. For
millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary
monarchies, or dynasties, beginning with the semi-legendary Xia
dynasty in 21st century BCE.[20] Since then,
China

China has expanded,
fractured, and re-unified numerous times. In the 3rd century BCE, the
Qin unified core
China

China and established the first Chinese dynasty. The
succeeding
Han dynasty

Han dynasty saw some of the most advanced technology at
that time, including papermaking and the compass,[21] along with
agricultural and medical improvements. The invention of gunpowder and
printing in the
Tang dynasty

Tang dynasty completed the Four Great Inventions. Tang
culture spread widely in Asia, as the new maritime Silk Route brought
traders to as far as
Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia and Somalia.[22] Dynastic rule ended
in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution, as a republic replaced the Qing
dynasty. The
Chinese Civil War

Chinese Civil War led to the break up of the country in
1949, with the victorious
Communist Party of China

Communist Party of China founding the
People’s
Republic of China

Republic of China on the mainland while the losing
Kuomintang

Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan, a dispute which is still unresolved.
Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China's economy
has been one of the world's fastest-growing. As of 2016[update], it is
the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by
purchasing power parity (PPP).
China

China is also the world's largest
exporter and second-largest importer of goods.[23]
China

China is a
recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing
army and second-largest defense budget.[24][25][26] The PRC is a
member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent
member of the
UN Security Council

UN Security Council in 1971.
China

China is also a member of
numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the
ASEAN Plus mechanism, WTO, APEC, BRICS, the
Shanghai

Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO), the
BCIM

BCIM and the G20.
China

China is a great power and a
major regional power within Asia, and has been characterized as a
potential superpower.[27][28]
Contents
1 Names
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Early dynastic rule
2.3 Imperial China
2.4 End of dynastic rule
2.5
Republic of China

Republic of China (1912–1949)
2.6
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China (1949–present)
3 Geography
3.1 Political geography
3.2 Landscape and climate
3.3 Biodiversity
3.4 Environmental issues
4 Politics
4.1 Communist Party
4.2 Government
4.3 Administrative divisions
4.4 Foreign relations
4.4.1 Trade relations
4.4.2 Territorial disputes
4.4.3 Emerging superpower status
4.5 Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform
5 Military
6 Economy
6.1 Economic history and growth
6.2
China

China in the global economy
6.3 Class and income inequality
6.4 Internationalization of the renminbi
7 Science and technology
7.1 Historical
7.2 Modern era
8 Infrastructure
8.1 Telecommunications
8.2 Transport
8.3 Water supply and sanitation
9 Demographics
9.1 Ethnic groups
9.2 Languages
9.3 Urbanization
9.4 Education
9.5 Health
9.6 Religion
10 Culture
10.1 Literature
10.2 Cuisine
10.3 Sports
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Names
Main article: Names of China
China
"China" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese
characters
"
People's Republic

People's Republic of China" in Simplified (top) and Traditional
(bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese
中国
Traditional Chinese
中國
Literal meaning
"Middle Kingdom"[29] or "Central State"[30]
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Zhōngguó
Bopomofo
ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh
Jong'gwo
Wade–Giles
Chung1-kuo2
Tongyong Pinyin
Jhongguó
MPS2
Jūng-guó
IPA
[ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing
ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع
Dungan
Җунгуй
Sichuanese Pinyin
Zong1 gwe2
Wu
Romanization
Tson平-koh入
Gan
Romanization
Tung-koe̍t
Xiang
IPA
Tan33-kwɛ24/
Hakka
Romanization
Dung24-gued2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Jūng-gwok
IPA
[tsóŋ.kʷɔ̄ːk̚]
Jyutping
Zung1-gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien

Hokkien POJ
Tiong-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC
Dṳ̆ng-guók
Pu-Xian Min
Hinghwa BUC
De̤ng-go̤h
Northern Min
Jian'ou Romanized
Dô̤ng-gŏ
People's Republic

People's Republic of China
Simplified Chinese
中华人民共和国
Traditional Chinese
中華人民共和國
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
Bopomofo
ㄓㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄖㄣˊ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄍㄨㄥˋ ㄏㄜˊ
ㄍㄨㄛˊ
IPA
[ʈʂʊ́ŋ.xwǎ ɻə̌n.mǐn kʊ̂ŋ.xɤ̌.kwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing
ﺟْﻮﺧُﻮَ ژٌمٍ ﻗْﻮحْقُوَع
Dungan
Җунхуа Жынмин Гунхәгуй
Sichuanese Pinyin
Zong1 hua2 Zen2 min2 Gong4 hwe2 gwe2
Wu
Romanization
Tson平 gho平 zin平 min平 gon去 ghu平 koh入
Gan
Romanization
Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet
Xiang
IPA
/tan33 go13 ŋin13 min13 gan45 gu13 kwɛ24/
Hakka
Romanization
Dung24 fa11 ngin11 min11 kiung55 fo11 gued2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Jūngwàh Yàhnmàhn Guhngwòhgwok
Jyutping
Zung1waa4 Jan4man4 Gung6wo4gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien

Hokkien POJ
Tiong-hôa jîn-bîn kiōng-hô-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC
Dṳ̆ng-huà Ìng-mìng Gê̤ṳng-huò-guók
Pu-Xian Min
Hinghwa BUC
De̤ng-huá Cíng-míng Gē̤ng-hó̤-go̤h
Northern Min
Jian'ou Romanized
Dô̤ng-uǎ Nêng-měng Gō̤ng-uǎ-gŏ
Tibetan name
Tibetan
ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི
མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ
Transcriptions
Wylie
krung hwa mi dmangs spyi mthun rgyal khab
Tibetan Pinyin
Zhunghua Mimang Jitun Gyalkab
Zhuang name
Zhuang
Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz
Mongolian name
Mongolian
Transcriptions
SASM/GNC
Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus
Uyghur name
Uyghur
جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى
Transcriptions
Latin Yëziqi
Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti
Yengi Yeziⱪ
Junghua Həlⱪ Jumⱨuriyiti
SASM/GNC
Junghua Hälk̂ Jumĥuriyiti
Siril Yëziqi
Җуңхуа Хәлқ Җумһурийити
Manchu name
Manchu script
ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ
ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
(ᡩᡡᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)
Romanization
Dulimbai niyalmairgen gungheg' gurun(Dulimbai Gurun)
The English word "China" is first attested in Richard Eden's 1555
translation[l] of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte
Barbosa.[m][35] The demonym, that is, the name for the people, and
adjectival form "Chinese" developed later on the model of Portuguese
chinês and French chinois.[36][n] Portuguese
China

China is thought to
derive from Persian Chīn (چین), and perhaps ultimately from
Sanskrit

Sanskrit Cīna (चीन).[38] Cīna was first used in early Hindu
scripture, including the
Mahābhārata

Mahābhārata (5th century BCE) and the
Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE).[39] In 1655, Martino Martini
suggested that the word
China

China is derived from the name of the Qin
dynasty (221–206 BC),[40] a proposal supported by many later
scholars,[41][42][43] although there are also a number of alternative
suggestions.[39][44]
The official name of the modern state is the "
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China" (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín
Gònghéguó). The shorter form is "China" Zhōngguó (中国), from
zhōng ("central") and guó ("state"),[30][o] a term which developed
under the
Western Zhou

Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne.[p]
It was then applied to the area around
Luoyi

Luoyi (present-day Luoyang)
during the
Eastern Zhou

Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being
used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing.[46] It was
often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the
Huaxia

Huaxia people from
perceived "barbarians"[46] and was the source of the English name
"Middle Kingdom".[48][49] A more literary or inclusive name, alluding
to the "land of Chinese civilization", is Zhōnghuá (中华).[50] It
developed during the Wei and Jin dynasties as a contraction of "the
central state of the Huaxia".[46] Before the PRC's establishment, the
proposed name of the country was the People's Democratic Republic of
China

China (simplified Chinese: 中华人民民主共和国; traditional
Chinese: 中華人民民主共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín
Mínzhǔ Gònghéguó) during the first CPPCC held on 15 June
1949.[51][52] During the 1950s and 1960s, after the defeat of the
Kuomintang

Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, it was also referred to as
"Communist China" or "Red China", to be differentiated from
"Nationalist China" or "Free China".[53]
History
Main articles:
History of China

History of China and Timeline of Chinese history
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BCE
Xia dynasty

Xia dynasty c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE
Shang dynasty

Shang dynasty c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE
Zhou dynasty

Zhou dynasty c. 1046 – 256 BCE
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn
Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin dynasty

Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE
Han dynasty

Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE
Western Han
Xin dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms

Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265–420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin
Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui dynasty

Sui dynasty 581–618
Tang dynasty

Tang dynasty 618–907
(Second
Zhou dynasty

Zhou dynasty 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–960
Liao dynasty
907–1125
Song dynasty
960–1279
Northern Song
Western Xia
Southern Song
Jin
Yuan dynasty

Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Ming dynasty
.svg/500px-Ming_Empire_cca_1580_(en).svg.png)
Ming dynasty 1368–1644
Qing dynasty
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Qing_Dynasty_(1862-1889).svg.png)
Qing dynasty 1644–1912
MODERN
Republic of China

Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China 1949–present
Related articles
Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
Naval history
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Prehistory
Main article: Chinese prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China
between 2.24 million and 250,000 years ago.[54] The hominid fossils of
Peking Man, a
Homo erectus

Homo erectus who used fire,[55] were discovered in a
cave at
Zhoukoudian

Zhoukoudian near Beijing; they have been dated to between
680,000 and 780,000 years ago.[56] The fossilized teeth of Homo
sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in
Fuyan Cave

Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan.[57] Chinese proto-writing existed in
Jiahu

Jiahu around 7000 BCE,[58]
Damaidi around 6000 BCE,[59]
Dadiwan from 5800–5400 BCE, and
Banpo

Banpo dating from the 5th
millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu
symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese
writing system.[58]
Early dynastic rule
Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history
Yinxu, the ruins of the capital of the late
Shang dynasty

Shang dynasty (14th
century BCE)
According to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which
emerged around 2100 BCE.[60] The dynasty was considered mythical
by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age
sites at Erlitou,
Henan
.svg/550px-Henan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Henan in 1959.[61] It remains unclear whether these
sites are the remains of the
Xia dynasty

Xia dynasty or of another culture from
the same period.[62] The succeeding
Shang dynasty

Shang dynasty is the earliest to
be confirmed by contemporary records.[63] The Shang ruled the plain of
the
Yellow River

Yellow River in eastern
China

China from the 17th to the 11th
century BCE.[64] Their oracle bone script (from
c. 1500 BCE)[65][66] represents the oldest form of Chinese
writing yet found,[67] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese
characters.[68]
The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and
5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded
by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from
the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in
the 300-year Spring and Autumn period, only occasionally deferring to
the Zhou king. By the time of the
Warring States period

Warring States period of the
5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign
states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and
army.
Imperial China
China's First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, is famed for having united the
Warring States' walls to form the Great Wall of China. Most of the
present structure, however, dates to the Ming dynasty.
The
Terracotta Army

Terracotta Army (c. 210 BCE) discovered outside the
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, now Xi'an
The
Warring States period

Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin
conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified
Chinese state.
King Zheng of Qin

King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the First Emperor
of the Qin dynasty. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms throughout
China, notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters,
measurements, road widths (i.e., cart axles' length), and currency.
His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and
Vietnam.[69] The
Qin dynasty

Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon
after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies
led to widespread rebellion.[70][71]
Following a widespread civil war during which the imperial library at
Xianyang

Xianyang was burned,[q] the
Han dynasty

Han dynasty emerged to rule
China

China between
206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its
populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese.[70][71]
The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military
campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan,
and the recovery of
Guangdong
.svg/550px-Guangdong_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Guangdong and northern
Vietnam

Vietnam from Nanyue. Han
involvement in
Central Asia
.svg/400px-Central_Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Central Asia and
Sogdia

Sogdia helped establish the land route
of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the
Himalayas

Himalayas to
India. Han
China

China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient
world.[73] Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official
abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of
Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be
employed by the Han government and its successors.[74]
After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three
Kingdoms followed,[75] whose central figures were later immortalized
in one of the
Four Classics of Chinese literature. At its end, Wei was
swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon
the ascension of a developmentally-disabled emperor; the Five
Barbarians then invaded and ruled northern
China

China as the Sixteen
States. The
Xianbei

Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor
Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a
drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into
Chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the
abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors
of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties,
with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui
restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture and
economy, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism.
However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works
and a failed war with
Korea

Korea provoked widespread unrest.[76][77]
A detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a
12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song dynasty's
capital,
Bianjing

Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng)
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy,
technology, and culture entered a golden age.[78] The Tang Empire
returned control of the
Western Regions
.png/600px-Western_Regions_1st_century_BC(en).png)
Western Regions and the Silk Road,[79] and
made the capital
Chang'an

Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was
devastated and weakened by the
An Shi Rebellion

An Shi Rebellion in the 8th
century.[80] In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local
military governors became ungovernable. The
Song dynasty

Song dynasty ended the
separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the
Song and Khitan Liao. The Song was the first government in world
history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish
a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed
shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.[81] Between the 10th
and 11th centuries, the population of
China

China doubled in size to around
100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice
cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of
abundant food surpluses. The
Song dynasty

Song dynasty also saw a revival of
Confucianism, in response to the growth of
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism during the
Tang,[82] and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape
art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and
complexity.[83][84] However, the military weakness of the Song army
was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of
Song and the capital
Bianjing

Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song
Wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China.[85]
The 13th century brought the Mongol conquest of China. In 1271, the
Mongol leader
Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty; the Yuan
conquered the last remnant of the
Song dynasty

Song dynasty in 1279. Before the
Mongol invasion, the population of Song
China

China was 120 million
citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in
1300.[86] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and
founded the
Ming dynasty
.svg/500px-Ming_Empire_cca_1580_(en).svg.png)
Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming
dynasty,
China

China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the
strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a
flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng
He led treasure voyages throughout the world, reaching as far as
Africa.[87]
In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from
Nanjing

Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such
as
Wang Yangming

Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-
Confucianism

Confucianism with
concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations.[88] The
scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and
commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the
famines and defense against Japanese invasions of
Korea

Korea (1592–98)
and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury.[89]
In 1644,
Beijing

Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces
led by Li Zicheng. The
Chongzhen Emperor

Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the
city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty
general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived
Shun dynasty and
subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital
of the Qing dynasty.
End of dynastic rule
A 19th-century depiction of the
Taiping Rebellion

Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)
The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last
imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost
25 million lives and the economy of
China

China shrank drastically.[90]
After the
Southern Ming

Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar
Khanate added Mongolia,
Tibet

Tibet and
Xinjiang
_(_all_claims_hatched).svg/550px-Xinjiang_in_China_(de-facto)_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Xinjiang to the empire.[91] The
centralized autocracy was strengthened to crack down on anti-Qing
sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining
commerce, the
Haijin

Haijin ("sea ban"), and ideological control as
represented by the literary inquisition, causing social and
technological stagnation.[92][93] In the mid-19th century, the dynasty
experienced Western imperialism in the
Opium Wars

Opium Wars with Britain and
France.
China

China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow
extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede
Hong Kong

Hong Kong to the
British[94] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal
Treaties. The
First Sino-Japanese War

First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Qing
China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the
cession of
Taiwan

Taiwan to Japan.[95]
The
Eight-Nation Alliance

Eight-Nation Alliance invaded
China

China to defeat the anti-foreign
Boxers and their Qing backers.
The
Qing dynasty
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Qing_Dynasty_(1862-1889).svg.png)
Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens
of millions of people died, especially in the failed Taiping Rebellion
that ravaged southern
China

China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan
Revolt (1862–77) in the northwest. The initial success of the
Self-Strengthening Movement

Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of
military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.
In the 19th century, the great
Chinese diaspora

Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to
emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the
Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79, in which between 9 and 13
million people died.[96] The
Guangxu Emperor

Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in
1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans
were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign
Boxer Rebellion

Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although
Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the
Xinhai Revolution

Xinhai Revolution of
1911–12 brought an end to the
Qing dynasty
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Qing_Dynasty_(1862-1889).svg.png)
Qing dynasty and established the
Republic of China.
Republic of China

Republic of China (1912–1949)
Main article:
Republic of China

Republic of China (1912–1949)
Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern
China

China (seated on right), and Chiang
Kai-shek, later President of the Republic of China
Chiang Kai-shek
.jpg)
Chiang Kai-shek and
Mao Zedong
.jpg/440px-Mao_Zedong_1963_(cropped).jpg)
Mao Zedong toasting together in 1946 following the
end of World War II
On 1 January 1912, the
Republic of China

Republic of China was established, and Sun
Yat-sen of the
Kuomintang

Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was
proclaimed provisional president.[97] However, the presidency was
later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915
proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular
condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced
to abdicate and re-establish the republic.[98]
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916,
China

China was politically fragmented.
Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but
virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its
territory.[99][100] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang
Kai-shek, the then Principal of the
Republic of China

Republic of China Military
Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a
series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively
as the Northern Expedition.[101][102] The
Kuomintang

Kuomintang moved the
nation's capital to
Nanjing

Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an
intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's
San-min program for transforming
China

China into a modern democratic
state.[103][104] The political division in
China

China made it difficult for
Chiang to battle the Communist,
People's Liberation Army

People's Liberation Army (PLA) against
whom the
Kuomintang

Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil
War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially
after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression
and the 1936
Xi'an

Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial
Japan.[105]
The
Second Sino-Japanese War

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II,
forced an uneasy alliance between the
Kuomintang

Kuomintang and the PLA. Japanese
forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian
population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[106]
An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing
alone during the Japanese occupation.[107] During the war, China,
along with the UK, the US and the Soviet Union, were referred to as
"trusteeship of the powerful"[108] and were recognized as the Allied
"Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.[109][110] Along with
the other three great powers,
China

China was one of the four major Allies
of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors
in the war.[111][112] After the surrender of
Japan

Japan in 1945, Taiwan,
including the Pescadores, was returned to Chinese control. China
emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The
continued distrust between the
Kuomintang

Kuomintang and the Communists led to
the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in
1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC
constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[113]
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China (1949–present)
Main article: History of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of China
History of the People's
Republic of China

Republic of China (PRC)
1949–1976
Mao era
Revolution
Korean War
Killings of landlords
Zhen Fan
Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
Hundred Flowers Campaign
Anti-Rightist Campaign
Great Leap Forward
(Great Chinese Famine)
Cultural Revolution
(Lin Biao
Gang of Four
Tiananmen

Tiananmen Incident)
1976–1989
Restructuring
Economic reform
Sino-Vietnamese War
Beijing

Beijing Spring
Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign
Tiananmen

Tiananmen protests
1989–2002
Rising power
One country, two systems
(Hong Kong
Macau)
Chinese unification
2002–present
Recent history
Sichuan

Sichuan earthquake
Beijing

Beijing Olympics
Shanghai

Shanghai 2010 Expo
Wang Lijun incident
2015
China

China Victory Day Parade
Anti-corruption campaign
after the 18th Party Congress
History of
China
PRC constitution
Beijing
Shanghai
Generations of leadership
1. Mao
2. Deng
3. Jiang
4. Hu
5. Xi
Culture
Economy
Education
Geography
Politics
China

China portal
v
t
e
Mao Zedong
.jpg/440px-Mao_Zedong_1963_(cropped).jpg)
Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949
Major combat in the
Chinese Civil War

Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist
Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang
retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan,
Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 21 September 1949, Communist
Party Chairman
Mao Zedong
.jpg/440px-Mao_Zedong_1963_(cropped).jpg)
Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's
Republic of China.[7][8][9] This was followed by a mass celebration in
Tiananmen Square

Tiananmen Square on 1 October which became the new country's first
National Day. In 1950, the
People's Liberation Army

People's Liberation Army succeeded in
capturing
Hainan
.svg/580px-Hainan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hainan from the ROC[114] and incorporating Tibet.[115]
However, remaining
Kuomintang

Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency
in western
China

China throughout the 1950s.[116] In modern US history
studies, the founding of PRC
China

China is often termed as "the loss of
China" as reflected in US state policy documents of the time, which
thinkers such as
Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky call the beginning of McCarthyism.[117]
The regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through land
reform, which saw between 1 and 2 million landlords executed.[118]
Under its leadership,
China

China developed an independent industrial system
and its own nuclear weapons.[119] The Chinese population almost
doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[120] However, the
Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project,
resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961,
mostly from starvation.[121] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the
Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and
social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October
1971, the PRC replaced the
Republic of China

Republic of China in the United Nations,
and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[122]
After Mao's death, the
Gang of Four
.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_(2).svg.png)
Gang of Four was quickly arrested and held
responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping
took power in 1978, and instituted significant economic reforms. The
Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens' personal
lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of private
land leases. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to
a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment.[123]
China

China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989,
the violent suppression of student protests in
Tiananmen

Tiananmen Square
brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from
various countries.[124]
Jiang Zemin,
Li Peng
.svg/200px-Li_Peng_(Chinese_characters).svg.png)
Li Peng and
Zhu Rongji

Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under
their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated
150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average
annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[125][126] The
country formally joined the
World Trade Organization
.svg/440px-World_Trade_Organization_(logo_and_wordmark).svg.png)
World Trade Organization in 2001, and
maintained its high rate of economic growth under
Hu Jintao

Hu Jintao and Wen
Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely
impacted the country's resources and environment,[127][128] and caused
major social displacement.[129][130] Living standards continued to
improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized
political control remained tight.[131]
Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012
were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[132] During
China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu
Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi
Jinping.[133][134] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale
efforts to reform its economy,[135][136] which has suffered from
structural instabilities and slowing growth.[137][138][139][140] The
Xi–Li Administration

Xi–Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child
policy and prison system.[141]
Geography
Main article: Geography of China
A composite satellite image showing the topography of China
Longsheng Rice Terrace

Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi
The Li River in Guangxi
Köppen climate types of China
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and
Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the
wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and
Tian Shan

Tian Shan mountain
ranges separate
China

China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze
and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world,
respectively, run from the
Tibetan Plateau

Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated
eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500
kilometers (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow,
East China

East China and
South China

South China seas.
China

China connects through the Kazakh
border to the
Eurasian Steppe

Eurasian Steppe which has been an artery of
communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the
Steppe route – the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).
Political geography
Main articles:
Borders of China

Borders of China and Territorial changes of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of China
The
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China is the second-largest country in the
world by land area[142] after Russia, and is either the third- or
fourth-largest by total area, after Russia,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada and, depending on
the definition of total area, the United States.[r] China's total area
is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2
(3,700,000 sq mi).[143] Specific area figures range from
9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the
Encyclopædia Britannica,[144] 9,596,961 km2
(3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic
Yearbook,[10] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi)
according to the CIA World Factbook.[12]
China

China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring
22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the
Yalu River

Yalu River to
the Gulf of Tonkin.[12]
China

China borders 14 nations, more than any other
country except Russia, which also borders 14.[145]
China

China extends
across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and
Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)
in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan[s]
in South Asia; Tajikistan,
Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan and
Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan in Central Asia;
and Russia, Mongolia, and
North Korea

North Korea in
Inner Asia and Northeast
Asia. Additionally,
China

China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea,
Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines.
Landscape and climate
The territory of
China

China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and
longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly
across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea
and the
East China

East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated
alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in
the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern
China

China is dominated
by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the
deltas of China's two major rivers, the
Yellow River

Yellow River and the Yangtze
River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and
Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the
Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the
north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest
point,
Mount Everest

Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[146]
The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried
lake bed of
Ayding Lake

Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.[147]
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons,
which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and
summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas
are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at
lower latitudes are warm and moist.[148] The climate in
China

China differs
from region to region because of the country's highly complex
topography.
A major environmental issue in
China

China is the continued expansion of its
deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[149][150] Although barrier tree
lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of
sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have
resulted in dust storms plaguing northern
China

China each spring, which
then spread to other parts of east Asia, including
Korea

Korea and Japan.
China's environmental watchdog, SEPA, stated in 2007 that
China

China is
losing 4,000 km2 (1,500 sq mi) per year to
desertification.[151] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control
have become important issues in China's relations with other
countries. Melting glaciers in the
Himalayas

Himalayas could potentially lead to
water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[152]
Five Flower Sea at Jiuzhaigou Valley, Sichuan
Crescent Lake in
Gobi Desert

Gobi Desert in Dunhuang, Gansu
Danxia landform, steep red sandstone cliff in Chishui, Guizhou
Muztagh Ata

Muztagh Ata of
Kunlun Mountains

Kunlun Mountains in Taxkorgan, Xinjiang
The
South China Sea

South China Sea coast at Sanya, Hainan
Winter scenery of
China

China Snowland in Hailin, Heilongjiang
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of China
A giant panda, China's most famous endangered and endemic species, at
the
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding

Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding in Sichuan
China

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[153] lying in two of the
world's major ecozones: the
Palearctic

Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By one
measure,
China

China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants,
making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil
and Colombia.[154] The country signed the
Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro Convention on
Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the
convention on 5 January 1993.[155] It later produced a National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was
received by the convention on 21 September 2010.[156]
China

China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest
such number in the world),[157] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[158]
424 species of reptiles (seventh)[159] and 333 species of amphibians
(seventh).[160] Wildlife in
China

China share habitat with and bear acute
pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least
840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local
extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat
destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for
traditional Chinese medicine.[161] Endangered wildlife is protected by
law, and as of 2005[update], the country has over 2,349 nature
reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent
of China's total land area.[162] The
Baiji

Baiji has recently been confirmed
extinct.
China

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[163] and is home to
a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the
north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and
Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[164] The
understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo.
In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by
rhododendrons.
Subtropical

Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central
and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[164]
Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to
Yunnan
.svg/550px-Yunnan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Yunnan and
Hainan
.svg/580px-Hainan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species
found in China.[164]
China

China has over 10,000 recorded species of
fungi,[165] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[166]
Environmental issues
Main article: Environmental issues in China
See also:
Water resources of China
.png)
Water resources of China and Energy policy of China
Wind turbines in Xinjiang
The traffic in Beijing
In recent decades,
China

China has suffered from severe environmental
deterioration and pollution.[167][168] While regulations such as the
1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are
poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local
communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic
development.[169] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the
country; the
World Bank

World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20
most-polluted cities are located in China.[170]
China

China is the world's
largest carbon dioxide emitter.[171] The country also has significant
water pollution problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by
industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.[172] In 2014, the
internal freshwater resources per capita of
China

China reduced to 2,062m3,
and it was below 500m3 in the
North China

North China Plain, while 5,920m3 in the
world.[173][174][175]
In China, heavy metals also cause environmental pollution. Heavy metal
pollution is an inorganic chemical hazard, which is mainly caused by
lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg),
zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni). Five metals
among them, Pb, Cr, As, Cd, and Hg, are the key heavy metal pollutants
in China. Heavy metal pollutants mainly come from mining, sewage
irrigation, the manufacturing of metal-containing products, and other
related production activities. High level of heavy metal exposure can
also cause permanent intellectual and developmental disabilities,
including reading and learning disabilities, behavioral problems,
hearing loss, attention problems, and disruption in the development of
visual and motor function. According to the data of a national census
of pollution,
China

China has more than 1.5 million sites of heavy metals
exposure. The total volume of discharged heavy metals in the waste
water, waste gas and solid wastes are around 900,000 tons each year
from 2005–2011.[176]
However,
China

China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and
its commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011
alone;[177][178][179] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy
technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy
projects.[180][181] By 2015, over 24% of China's energy was derived
from renewable sources, while most notably from hydroelectric power: a
total installed capacity of 197 GW makes
China

China the largest
hydroelectric power producer in the world.[182][183]
China

China also has
the largest power capacity of installed solar photovoltaics system and
wind power system in the world.[184][185] In 2011, the Chinese
government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$619
billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a
ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention
and anti-drought system by 2020.[174][186] In 2013,
China

China began a
five-year, US$277 billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly
in the north of the country.[187]
Politics
Main article: Politics of China
See also: List of current Chinese provincial leaders
The Great Hall of the People
where the
National People's Congress
.svg/260px-National_Emblem_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_(2).svg.png)
National People's Congress convenes
The Zhongnanhai, home and workplace of the PRC President
Supreme Court Building, where the nation's highest court sits
Xi Jinping
General Secretary
and President
Li Keqiang
Premier
China's constitution states that The
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China "is a
socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the
working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants," and
that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic
centralism."[188] The PRC is one of the world's few remaining
socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the
Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously
described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and
corporatist,[189] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably
against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of
assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social
organizations and freedom of religion.[190] Its current political,
ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the
"people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese
characteristics" (which is
Marxism

Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances)
and the "socialist market economy" respectively.[191]
Communist Party
Sign in
Tiananmen Square

Tiananmen Square marking the 90th anniversary of the Communist
Party of China
China's constitution declares that the country is ruled "under the
leadership" of the
Communist Party of China

Communist Party of China (CPC).[192] As
China

China is a
de facto one-party state, the General Secretary (party leader) holds
ultimate power and authority over state and government serving as the
paramount leader.[193] The electoral system is pyramidal. Local
People's Congresses are directly elected, and higher levels of
People's Congresses up to the
National People's Congress
.svg/260px-National_Emblem_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_(2).svg.png)
National People's Congress (NPC) are
indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately
below.[194] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and
sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[195]
Another eight political parties, have representatives in the NPC and
the
Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
_logo.svg/360px-Charter_of_the_Chinese_People's_Political_Consultative_Conference_(CPPCC)_logo.svg.png)
Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[196]
China

China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism",[197]
but critics describe the elected
National People's Congress
.svg/260px-National_Emblem_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_(2).svg.png)
National People's Congress as a
"rubber stamp" body.[198]
Government
Main article: Government of China
Tiananmen

Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong
The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National
People's Congress. The Premier is the head of government, presiding
over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of
ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who
is also the
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China

General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the
Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's
paramount leader. The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a
senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de
facto top decision-making body.[199][133]
There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that
open contested elections are now held at the village and town
levels.[200][201] However, the party retains effective control over
government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the
CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China
include the growing gap between rich and poor and government
corruption.[202][203] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the
government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of
Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government,
according to a 2011 survey.[204]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong
Kong, and Municipalities of Macau
The
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China is divided into 22 provinces, five
autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four
municipalities; and two special administrative regions (SARs) which
enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 31 provincial-level
divisions can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term
which usually excludes two SARs of
Hong Kong

Hong Kong and Macau.
Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions can be grouped into six
regions, including North China, Northeast China, East China, South
Central China,
Southwest China

Southwest China and Northwest China.
China

China considers
Taiwan

Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although
Taiwan

Taiwan is
governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's
claim.[205] None of the divisions are recognized by the ROC
government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.
Provinces (省)
Claimed Province
Anhui
.svg/550px-Anhui_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Anhui (安徽省)
Fujian
.svg/550px-Fujian_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Fujian (福建省)
Gansu
.svg/550px-Gansu_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Gansu (甘肃省)
Guangdong
.svg/550px-Guangdong_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Guangdong (广东省)
Guizhou
.svg/550px-Guizhou_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Guizhou (贵州省)
Hainan
.svg/580px-Hainan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hainan (海南省)
Hebei
.svg/550px-Hebei_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hebei (河北省)
Heilongjiang

Heilongjiang (黑龙江省)
Henan
.svg/550px-Henan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Henan (河南省)
Hubei
.svg/550px-Hubei_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hubei (湖北省)
Hunan
.svg/550px-Hunan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hunan (湖南省)
Jiangsu
.svg/550px-Jiangsu_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Jiangsu (江苏省)
Jiangxi
.svg/550px-Jiangxi_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Jiangxi (江西省)
Jilin
.svg/550px-Jilin_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Jilin (吉林省)
Liaoning

Liaoning (辽宁省)
Qinghai
.svg/550px-Qinghai_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Qinghai (青海省)
Shaanxi
.svg/550px-Shaanxi_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Shaanxi (陕西省)
Shandong
.svg/550px-Shandong_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Shandong (山东省)
Shanxi
.svg/550px-Shanxi_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Shanxi (山西省)
Sichuan

Sichuan (四川省)
Yunnan
.svg/550px-Yunnan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Yunnan (云南省)
Zhejiang
.svg/550px-Zhejiang_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Zhejiang (浙江省)
Taiwan

Taiwan (台湾省)
governed by R.O.China
Autonomous regions (自治区)
Municipalities (直辖市)
Special

Special administrative regions (特别行政区)
Guangxi

Guangxi (广西壮族自治区)
Inner
Mongolia

Mongolia / Nei Menggu (内蒙古自治区)
Ningxia
.svg/550px-Ningxia_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区)
Xinjiang
_(_all_claims_hatched).svg/550px-Xinjiang_in_China_(de-facto)_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区)
Tibet

Tibet / Xizang (西藏自治区)
Beijing

Beijing (北京市)
Chongqing

Chongqing (重庆市)
Shanghai

Shanghai (上海市)
Tianjin

Tianjin (天津市)
Hong Kong

Hong Kong / Xianggang (香港特别行政区)
Macau

Macau / Aomen (澳门特别行政区)
Foreign relations
Main article:
Foreign relations of China
China's paramount leader
Xi Jinping
_(cropped).jpg/440px-Xi_Jinping_October_2013_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg)
Xi Jinping with U.S. President Donald Trump,
2017
China's paramount leader
Xi Jinping
_(cropped).jpg/440px-Xi_Jinping_October_2013_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg)
Xi Jinping holds hands with fellow BRICS
leaders at the 2014
G20

G20 Brisbane summit in Australia
Diplomatic Relations of China
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 175 countries and maintains
embassies in 162. Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China
and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous
state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic
of
China

China as the sole representative of
China

China in the
United Nations

United Nations and
as one of the five permanent members of the
United Nations

United Nations Security
Council.[206]
China

China was also a former member and leader of the
Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for
developing countries.[207] Along with Brazil, Russia,
India

India and South
Africa,
China

China is a member of the
BRICS

BRICS group of emerging major
economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya,
Hainan
.svg/580px-Hainan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hainan in April 2011.[208]
Under its interpretation of the One-
China

China policy,
Beijing

Beijing has made it
a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other
country acknowledges its claim to
Taiwan

Taiwan and severs official ties with
the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have
protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made
diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[209] especially in the matter of
armament sales.[210]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier
Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also
driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which
encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological
differences.[211] This policy may have led
China

China to support states
that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such
as Zimbabwe,
North Korea

North Korea and Iran.[212]
China

China has a close economic and
military relationship with Russia,[213] and the two states often vote
in unison in the UN Security Council.[214][215][216]
Trade relations
In recent decades,
China

China has played an increasing role in calling for
free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific
neighbours.
China

China became a member of the World Trade Organization
(WTO) on 11 December 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East
Asia
.svg/440px-Asia_on_the_globe_(Asia_centered).svg.png)
Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security
issues.[217] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India,
Australia

Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005.
China

China is
also a founding member of the
Shanghai

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO),
along with
Russia

Russia and the Central Asian republics.
In 2000, the
United States Congress

United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade
relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same
low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[218]
China

China has a
significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important
export market.[219] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the
Chinese yuan

Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving
China

China an unfair
trade advantage.[220][221][222] In recent decades,
China

China has followed
a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral
co-operation;[223][224][225] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over
US$160 billion.[226]
China

China has furthermore strengthened its ties with
major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner
of
Brazil

Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[227][228]
Territorial disputes
Main article:
Foreign relations of China

Foreign relations of China § International
territorial disputes
See also: List of wars involving the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China and
Cross-Strait relations
Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring
states. For a larger map, see here.
Ever since its establishment after the second Chinese Civil War, the
PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China
(ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as
a part of its territory. It regards the island of
Taiwan

Taiwan as its Taiwan
Province,
Kinmen

Kinmen and Matsu as a part of
Fujian
.svg/550px-Fujian_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Fujian Province and islands
the ROC controls in the
South China Sea

South China Sea as a part of
Hainan
.svg/580px-Hainan_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hainan Province
and
Guangdong
.svg/550px-Guangdong_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the
complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the
One-China policy

One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic
principles.[229]
In addition to Taiwan,
China

China is also involved in other international
territorial disputes. Since the 1990s,
China

China has been involved in
negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a
disputed border with
India

India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China
is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership
of several small islands in the East and
South China

South China Seas, such as the
Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[230][231] On 21 May 2014 Xi
Jinping, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle
China's territorial disputes peacefully. "
China

China stays committed to
seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over
territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests", he
said.[232]
Emerging superpower status
China

China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain
commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military
might, very large population, and increasing international influence
as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st
century.[28][233] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and
demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the
century progresses.[234][235] Some authors also question the
definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone
would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the
military power and cultural influence of the United States.[236]
Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform
See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in
China, Elections in China, Censorship in China, and Feminism in China
The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of
the
Communist Party of China

Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social
and political reform. While economic and social controls have been
significantly relaxed in
China

China since the 1970s, political freedom is
still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom
of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of
religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in
practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection
against criminal prosecution by the state.[237][238] Although some
criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are
tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most
notably on the Internet,[239][240] are routinely used to prevent
collective action.[241] In 2005,
Reporters Without Borders

Reporters Without Borders ranked
China

China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index,
indicating a very low level of press freedom.[242] In 2014, China
ranked 175th out of 180 countries.[243]
Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as
second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system,
which controls access to state benefits.[244][245]
Property

Property rights are
often poorly protected,[244] and taxation disproportionately affects
poorer citizens.[245] However, a number of rural taxes have been
reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social
services provided to rural dwellers.[246][247]
According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 3,388,400
people are enslaved in modern-day China, or 0.25% of the
population.[248] State-sponsored slavery is part of the Chinese penal
system, and there are over a thousand slave labour prisons and camps
known collectively as the Laogai. Prisoners are not paid at all, and
need their families to send money to them. Prisoners who refuse to
work are beaten, and some are beaten to death. Many of the prisoners
are political or religious dissidents, and some are recognized
internationally as prisoners of conscience. Laogai in Chinese means
forced labour and reform. A Chinese president said that they want to
see two products coming out of the prisons: the man who has been
reformed, and the product made by the man. Harry Wu, himself a former
prisoner of the Laogai, filmed undercover footage of the Laogai, and
was charged with stealing state secrets. For this, Harry Wu was
sentenced to 15 years in prison, but only served 66 days before being
deported to the United States.[249][250][251]
Candlelight vigil on the 20th anniversary of the
Tiananmen

Tiananmen Square
protests
A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also
routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread
civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced
abortions,[252] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of
fundamental rights,[190][253] and excessive use of the death
penalty.[254][255] The government has suppressed popular protests and
demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social
stability", as was the case with the
Tiananmen Square

Tiananmen Square protests of
1989.
Falun Gong

Falun Gong was first taught publicly in 1992. In 1999, when there were
70 million practitioners,[256] the persecution of
Falun Gong

Falun Gong began,
resulting in mass arrests, extralegal detention, and reports of
torture and deaths in custody.[257][258] The Chinese state is
regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in
Tibet

Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious
suppression.[259][260] The state has even sought to control offshore
reporting of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based
reporters by detaining their family members.[261]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing
that the right to subsistence and economic development is a
prerequisite to other types of human rights, and that the notion of
human rights should take into account a country's present level of
economic development.[262] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese
standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since
the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to
combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River
floods.[262][263][264] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have
spoken out in support of democratization, although others remain more
conservative.[265] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for
an instance in November 2013, the government announced plans to relax
the one-child policy and abolish the much-criticized re-education
through labour program,[141] though human rights groups note that
reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic.[257] During the
2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly
tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social
problems, but such "third sector" activity remained heavily
regulated.[266][267]
Military
Main articles:
Military history of China before 1911

Military history of China before 1911 and People's
Liberation Army
A PLA air force
Chengdu J-20

Chengdu J-20 stealth fighter aircraft
With 2.3 million active troops, the
People's Liberation Army

People's Liberation Army (PLA) is
the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the
Central Military Commission (CMC).[268] The PLA consists of the Ground
Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the
People's Liberation Army

People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the
Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 totalled US$151,5
billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget,
although the military expenditures-GDP ratio with 1,3% of GDP is below
world average.[25] However, many authorities – including
SIPRI

SIPRI and
the U.S.
Office of the Secretary of Defense

Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that
China

China does
not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly
much higher than the official budget.[25][269]
As a recognized nuclear weapons state,
China

China is considered both a
major regional military power and a potential military
superpower.[270] According to a 2013 report by the US Department of
Defense,
China

China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a
number of SRBMs.[24] However, compared with the other four UN Security
Council Permanent Members,
China

China has relatively limited power
projection capabilities.[271] To offset this, it has developed
numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s – its first
aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[272][273][274] and it
maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several
nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[275] China
has furthermore established a network of foreign military
relationships along critical sea lanes.[276]
China

China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in
recent decades, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi
Su-30, and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably
the
Chengdu

Chengdu J-10, J-20 and the
Shenyang

Shenyang J-11, J-15, J-16, and
J-31.[272][277]
China

China is furthermore engaged in developing an
indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones.[278][279][280]
Air and
Sea denial weaponry advances have increased the regional
threat from the perspective of
Japan

Japan as well as Washington.[281][282]
China

China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing
Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern
Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and
C4I
.jpg/440px-Embraer_R-99_6750_(9502952605).jpg)
C4I systems to
enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[283] In addition,
China

China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile
systems,[284][285] including anti-satellite missiles,[286] cruise
missiles[287] and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.[288] According to
the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's data, China
became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14,
an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–09.[289] Chinese
officials stated that spending on the military will rise to U.S. $173B
in 2018. fox
Economy
Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China, and List of
Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
China

China and other major developing economies by GDP per capita at
purchasing-power parity, 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of
China

China (blue) is readily apparent.[290]
The
Shanghai

Shanghai Stock Exchange building in Shanghai's
Lujiazui

Lujiazui financial
district.
Shanghai

Shanghai has the 25th-largest city GDP in the world,
totalling US$304 billion in 2011[291]
China

China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two
thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and
decline.[292][293] As of 2014[update],
China

China has the world's
second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling
approximately US$10.380 trillion according to the International
Monetary Fund.[citation needed] In terms of purchasing power parity
(PPP) GDP, China's economy is the largest in the world, with a 2014
PPP GDP of US$17.617 trillion.[citation needed] In 2013, its PPP GDP
per capita was US$12,880, while its nominal GDP per capita was
US$7,589. Both cases put
China

China behind around eighty countries (out of
183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[294]
Economic history and growth
Main article:
Economic history of China

Economic history of China (1949–present)
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's
death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng
Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy
and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party
rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands
privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to
the creation of
Special

Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned
enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed
outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day
China

China is mainly
characterized as having a market economy based on private property
ownership,[295] and is one of the leading examples of state
capitalism.[296][297] The state still dominates in strategic "pillar"
sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private
enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million
private businesses recorded in 2008.[298][299][300][301]
Headquarters of
Alibaba Group

Alibaba Group in Hangzhou
Since economic liberalization began in 1978,
China

China has been among the
world's fastest-growing economies,[302] relying largely on investment-
and export-led growth.[303] According to the IMF, China's annual
average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007 and
2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7
countries' growth combined.[304] According to the Global Growth
Generators index announced by
Citigroup

Citigroup in February 2011,
China

China has a
very high 3G growth rating.[305] Its high productivity, low labor
costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader
in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly
energy-intensive and inefficient;[306]
China

China became the world's
largest energy consumer in 2010,[307] relies on coal to supply over
70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's
largest oil importer in September 2013.[308][309] In the early 2010s,
China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit
troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and
fragility in the global economy.[310][311][312]
In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly
than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development
occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit Suisse, the
total value of online transactions in
China

China grew from an insignificant
size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. The
Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as
Alipay, Tenpay and
China

China UnionPay.[313]
China

China in the global economy
China

China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power,
with a total international trade value of US$3.87 trillion in
2012.[23] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion
by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year,
making its reserves by far the world's largest.[314][315] In 2012,
China

China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct
investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[316] In 2014, China's
foreign exchange remittances were $US64 billion making it the second
largest recipient of remittances in the world.[317]
China

China also invests
abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[316]
and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese
companies.[318] In 2009,
China

China owned an estimated $1.6 trillion
of US securities,[319] and was also the largest foreign holder of US
public debt, owning over $1.16 trillion in US Treasury
bonds.[320][321] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction
with other major economies,[221][322][323] and it has also been widely
criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit
goods.[324][325] According to consulting firm McKinsey, total
outstanding debt in
China

China increased from $7.4 trillion in 2007 to
$28.2 trillion in 2014, which reflects 228% of China's GDP.[326] In
2017 the Institute of International Finance reported that China's debt
had reached 304% of its GDP.[327]
Graph comparing the 2014 nominal GDPs
of major economies in
US$

US$ billions (IMF)[328]
China

China ranked 29th in the
Global Competitiveness Index in 2009,[329]
although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in
the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom.[330] In 2014, Fortune's Global 500
list of the world's largest corporations included 95 Chinese
companies, with combined revenues of US$5.8 trillion.[331] The same
year,
Forbes

Forbes reported that five of the world's ten largest public
companies were Chinese, including the world's largest bank by total
assets, the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China.[332]
Class and income inequality
See also: Income inequality in China
China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual
income of between US$10,000 and US$60,000) had reached more than
300 million by 2012.[333] According to the Hurun Report, the
number of
US dollar

US dollar billionaires in
China

China increased from 130 in 2009
to 251 in 2012, giving
China

China the world's second-highest number of
billionaires.[334][335] China's domestic retail market was worth over
20 trillion yuan (US$3.2 trillion) in 2012[336] and is growing at over
12% annually as of 2013[update],[337] while the country's luxury goods
market has expanded immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.[338]
However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has
contributed to severe consumer inflation,[339][340] leading to
increased government regulation.[341]
China

China has a high level of
economic inequality,[342] which has increased in the past few
decades.[343] In 2012, China's official
Gini coefficient

Gini coefficient was
0.474.[344] A study conducted by Southwestern University of Finance
and Economics showed that China’s
Gini coefficient

Gini coefficient actually had
reached 0.61 in 2012, and top 1% Chinese held more than 25% of
China’s wealth.[345]
Internationalization of the renminbi
Main article: Internationalization of the renminbi
Following the 2008 global financial crisis,
China

China realized the
dependency on the US Dollar and the weakness of the international
monetary system.[346] The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009
when
China

China established dim sum bond market and expanded the
Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish
pools of offshore RMB liquidity.[347][348] In November 2010, Russia
began using the
Chinese renminbi

Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with
China.[349] This was soon followed by Japan,[350] Australia,[351]
Singapore,[352] the United Kingdom,[353] and Canada.[354] As a result
of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the
eighth-most-traded currency in the world in 2013.[355]
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in China, Chinese space program,
List of Chinese discoveries, and List of Chinese inventions
History of science and
technology in China
Inventions
Four Great Inventions
Discoveries
By subject
Mathematics
Astronomy
Calendar
Units of measurement
Cartography
Geography
Printing
Ceramics
Metallurgy
Coinage
Chinese Alchemy
Traditional medicine
herbology
Agriculture
Sericulture
Silk industry
Architecture
Classic gardens
Bridges
Transport
Navigation
Military
Navy
By era
Han
Tang
Song
Yuan
People's Republic
Agriculture
v
t
e
Historical
China

China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the
Ming dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as
papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great
Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and
later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative
numbers.[356][357] By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world
surpassed
China

China in scientific and technological advancement.[358] The
causes of this early modern
Great Divergence

Great Divergence continue to be debated by
scholars to this day.[359]
After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and
Japan

Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern
science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement.
After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to
organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet
Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[360]
After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as
one of the Four Modernizations,[361] and the Soviet-inspired academic
system was gradually reformed.[362]
Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution,
China

China has made significant
investments in scientific research,[363] with $163 billion spent on
scientific research and development in 2012.[364] Science and
technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and
political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a
degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[365] Nonetheless,
China's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains
behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States
and Japan.[363][364] Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize
in Physics four times, the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology or
Medicine once respectively, though most of these scientists conducted
their Nobel-winning research in western nations.[t]
China

China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science,
mathematics and engineering; in 2009,
China

China graduated over 10,000
Ph.D. engineers, and as many as 500,000
BSc
_-_Computer_History_Museum_(2007-11-10_22.58.44_by_Carlo_Nardone).jpg/330px-Convex_C-1_(1985)_-_Computer_History_Museum_(2007-11-10_22.58.44_by_Carlo_Nardone).jpg)
BSc graduates, more than any
other country.[371]
China

China is also the world's second-largest publisher
of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200
in leading international scientific journals.[372] Chinese technology
companies such as
Huawei

Huawei and
Lenovo

Lenovo have become world leaders in
telecommunications and personal computing,[373][374][375] and Chinese
supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most
powerful.[376][377]
China

China is also expanding its use of industrial
robots; from 2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots in
Chinese factories rose by 136 percent.[378]
The
Chinese space program

Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a
major source of national pride.[379][380] In 1970,
China

China launched its
first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to do so
independently.[381] In 2003,
China

China became the third country to
independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight
aboard Shenzhou 5; as of 2015[update], ten Chinese nationals have
journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first
space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step
in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early
2020s.[382] In 2013,
China

China successfully landed the
Chang'e 3

Chang'e 3 lander
and Yutu rover onto the lunar surface;
China

China plans to collect lunar
soil samples by 2017.[383] In 2016, China's 2nd space station module,
Tiangong-2, was launched from Jiuquan aboard a Long
March 2F rocket on 15 September 2016. Then Shenzhou
11 successfully docked with
Tiangong-2

Tiangong-2 on 19 October 2016.
Infrastructure
Telecommunications
Beidou satellites are mainly launched using
Long March

Long March 3 rocket
family.
Main article: Telecommunications in China
China

China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any
country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012.[384]
It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband
users,[385] with over 688 million internet users as of 2016[update],
equivalent to around half of its population.[386] The national average
broadband connection speed is 9.46 Mbit/s, ranking
China

China 91st in the
world in terms of internet speed.[386] As of July 2013,
China

China accounts
for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices.[387] Since 2011
China

China is the nation with the most installed telecommunication
bandwidth in the world. By 2014,
China

China hosts more than twice as much
national bandwidth potential than the U.S., the historical leader in
terms of installed telecommunication bandwidth (China: 29% versus
US:13% of the global total).[388]
China Telecom

China Telecom and
China

China Unicom, the world's two largest broadband
providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers. China
Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while
China Unicom

China Unicom serves more than 40 million.[389] Several Chinese
telecommunications companies, most notably
Huawei

Huawei and ZTE, have been
accused of spying for the Chinese military.[390]
China

China is developing its own satellite navigation system, dubbed
Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services across
Asia
.svg/440px-Asia_on_the_globe_(Asia_centered).svg.png)
Asia in 2012,[391] and is planned to offer global coverage by
2020.[392]
Transport
The
Baling River Bridge

Baling River Bridge is one of the highest bridges in the world.
Main article: Transport in China
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been
significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national
highways and expressways. In 2011 China's highways had reached a total
length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), making it the longest
highway system in the world.[393] In 1991, there were only six bridges
across the main stretch of the Yangtze River, which bisects the
country into northern and southern halves. By October 2014, there were
81 such bridges and tunnels.
China

China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed
the
United States

United States in both auto sales and production. Auto sales in
2009 exceeded 13.6 million[394] and may reach 40 million by
2020.[395] A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network
has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,[396] with poorly
enforced traffic laws cited as a possible cause—in 2011 alone,
around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents.[397] In urban areas,
bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing
prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012[update], there are
approximately 470 million bicycles in China.[398]
Terminal 3 of
Beijing

Beijing Capital International Airport is the 2nd-largest
airport terminal in the world
China's railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the
world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6
percent of the world's tracks in 2006.[399][400] As of 2013[update],
the country had 103,144 km (64,091 mi) of railways, the
third longest network in the world.[401] All provinces and regions are
connected to the rail network except Macau. The railways strain to
meet enormous demand particularly during the
Chinese New Year

Chinese New Year holiday,
when the world's largest annual human migration takes place.[400] In
2013, Chinese railways delivered 2.106 billion passenger trips,
generating 1,059.56 billion passenger-kilometers and carried 3.967
billion tons of freight, generating 2,917.4 billion cargo
tons-kilometers.[401]
China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early
2000s. Today it has over 19,000 kilometers (11,806 miles) of dedicated
lines alone, a length that exceeds rest of the world's high-speed rail
tracks combined,[402] making it the longest HSR network in the
world.[403] With an annual ridership of over 1.1 billion passengers in
2015 it is the world's busiest.[404] The network includes the
Beijing–Guangzhou–
Shenzhen

Shenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest
HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–
Shanghai

Shanghai High-Speed Railway,
which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world.[405] The HSR
track network is set to reach approximately 16,000 km
(9,900 mi) by 2020.[406] The
Shanghai

Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches
431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service
in the world.[407]
The
Shanghai

Shanghai Maglev Train
Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has
accelerated. As of January 2016, 26 Chinese cities have urban mass
transit systems in operation and 39 more have metro systems
approved[408] with a dozen more to join them by 2020.[409] The
Shanghai

Shanghai Metro,
Beijing

Beijing Subway,
Guangzhou

Guangzhou Metro,
Hong Kong

Hong Kong
MTR
.svg/500px-MTR_(logo_with_text).svg.png)
MTR and
Shenzhen Metro
.jpg/520px-Bitou_Station_Platform_(revised).jpg)
Shenzhen Metro are among the longest and busiest in the world.
The
China

China Standardized EMU, also known as Fuxing Hao, is an indigenous
Chinese bullet train whose maximum operating speed reaches 350 km/h
(217 mph)
There were approximately 200 airports in 2015 with around 240 planned
by 2020. More than two-thirds of the airports under construction
worldwide in 2013 were in China,[410] and
Boeing

Boeing expects that China's
fleet of active commercial aircraft in
China

China will grow from 1,910 in
2011 to 5,980 in 2031.[410] With rapid expansion in civil aviation,
the largest airports in
China

China have also joined the ranks of the
busiest in the world. In 2013, Beijing's Capital Airport ranked second
in the world by passenger traffic (it was 26th in 2002). Since 2010,
the
Hong Kong

Hong Kong International Airport and
Shanghai

Shanghai Pudong International
Airport have ranked first and third in air cargo tonnage.
Some 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for military use, and
Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian
airlines in terms of delays.[411]
China

China has over 2,000 river and
seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2012,
the Ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan,
Guangzhou, Qingdao, Tianjin,
Dalian
.jpg/500px-Dalian_Montage_(2).jpg)
Dalian ranked in the top in the world in
container traffic and cargo tonnage.[412]
The Port of Shanghai's deep water harbor on Yangshan Island in the
Hangzhou

Hangzhou Bay became the world's busiest container port in 2010
Water supply and sanitation
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in China
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in
China

China is facing
challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity,
contamination, and pollution.[413] According to data presented by the
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of
WHO

WHO and
UNICEF

UNICEF in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in
China

China still did
not have access to improved sanitation.[414] In June 2010, there were
1,519 sewage treatment plants in
China

China and 18 plants were added each
week.[415] The ongoing
South–North Water Transfer Project
.png/440px-Map_of_the_South–North_Water_Transfer_Project_in_China_(de).png)
South–North Water Transfer Project intends to
abate water shortage in the north.[416]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of China
A 2009 population density map of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China and
Taiwan. The eastern coastal provinces are much more densely populated
than the western interior
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's
Republic of China

Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the
population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59
years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.[417] The population
growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.[418]
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid
growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty
since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives below the
poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. In 2014, the
urban unemployment rate of
China

China was about 4.1%.[419][420]
With a population of around 1.4 billion and dwindling natural
resources, the government of
China

China is very concerned about its
population growth rate and has attempted since 1979, with mixed
results,[421] to implement a strict family planning policy, known as
the "one-child policy." Before 2013, this policy sought to restrict
families to one child each, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and
a degree of flexibility in rural areas. A major loosening of the
policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two
children if one parent is an only child.[422] In 2016, the one-child
policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[423] Data from the
2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may be around
1.4.[424]
Population of
China

China from 1949 to 2008[needs update]
The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may be
contributing to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[425][426]
According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118.06 boys
for every 100 girls,[427] which is beyond the normal range of around
105 boys for every 100 girls.[428] The 2010 census found that males
accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population.[427] However,
China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males
accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.[427]
Ethnic groups
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in
China, and
Ethnic groups

Ethnic groups in Chinese history
A trilingual sign in Sibsongbanna, with
Tai Lü language
_Tai_Lü_script_in_Mohan,_Yunnan.jpg/440px-China_Post_logo_with_(New)_Tai_Lü_script_in_Mohan,_Yunnan.jpg)
Tai Lü language on the top
China

China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of
which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total
population.[14] The
Han Chinese

Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic
group[429] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level
division except
Tibet

Tibet and Xinjiang.[430] Ethnic minorities account for
about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010
census.[14] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han
population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the
population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by
7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[14] The 2010 census recorded a total of
593,832 foreign citizens living in China. The largest such groups were
from
South Korea

South Korea (120,750), the
United States

United States (71,493) and Japan
(66,159).[431]
Languages
Main articles:
Languages of China

Languages of China and List of endangered languages in
China
1990 map of Chinese ethnolinguistic groups
There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[432] The languages
most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan
language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 70% of the
population),[433] and other varieties of Chinese language: Yue
(including
Cantonese

Cantonese and Taishanese), Wu (including
Shanghainese

Shanghainese and
Suzhounese), Min (including Fuzhounese,
Hokkien

Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang,
Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including
Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and
Yunnan–
Guizhou
.svg/550px-Guizhou_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwest
China

China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao
and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic
family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic
groups speak
Altaic languages

Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several
Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur.
Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli,
the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European
language. Taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the
mainland, speak Austronesian languages.[434]
Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the
Beijing

Beijing dialect,
is the official national language of
China

China and is used as a lingua
franca in the country between people of different linguistic
backgrounds.[435]
Chinese characters

Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the
Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of
mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each
other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplified
characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in
mainland China.
Chinese characters

Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin
system. Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script. Uyghur is
most commonly written in
Persian alphabet

Persian alphabet based Uyghur Arabic
alphabet. The
Mongolian script

Mongolian script used in
China

China and the Manchu script are
both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Zhuang uses both an
official Latin alphabet script and a traditional Chinese character
script.
Urbanization
See also: List of cities in China,
List of cities in China

List of cities in China by
population, and Metropolitan regions of China
Map of the ten largest cities in
China

China (2010)
China

China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of
the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in
1980 to over 50% in 2014.[436][437][438] It is estimated that China's
urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially
equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.[436][437] As of
2012[update], there are more than 262 million migrant workers in
China, mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities.[439]
China

China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[440]
including the seven megacities (cities with a population of over 10
million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin,
Shenzhen, and Wuhan.[441][442][443] By 2025, it is estimated that the
country will be home to 221 cities with over a million
inhabitants.[436] The figures in the table below are from the 2010
census,[4] and are only estimates of the urban populations within
administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when
considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban
and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant
workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[444] the
figures below include only long-term residents.
v
t
e
Largest cities or towns in China
Sixth National Population Census of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of China
(2010)
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Shanghai
Beijing
1
Shanghai
Shanghai
20,217,700
11
Chengdu
Sichuan
6,316,900
Chongqing
Guangzhou
2
Beijing
Beijing
16,446,900
12
Nanjing
Jiangsu
6,238,200
3
Chongqing
Chongqing
11,871,200
13
Shenyang
Liaoning
5,718,200
4
Guangzhou
Guangdong
10,641,400
14
Hangzhou
Zhejiang
5,578,300
5
Shenzhen
Guangdong
10,358,400
15
Xi'an
Shaanxi
5,399,300
6
Tianjin
Tianjin
9,562,300
16
Harbin
Heilongjiang
5,178,000
7
Wuhan
Hubei
7,541,500
17
Suzhou
Jiangsu
4,083,900
8
Dongguan
Guangdong
7,271,300
18
Qingdao
Shandong
3,990,900
9
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
7,055,071
19
Dalian
Liaoning
3,902,500
10
Foshan
Guangdong
6,771,900
20
Zhengzhou
Henan
3,677,000
Education
Main articles: Education in the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China and List of
universities in China
Beijing's Tsinghua University, one of the top-ranked universities in
China[445]
Since 1986, compulsory education in
China

China comprises primary and junior
secondary school, which together last for nine years.[446] In 2010,
about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a
three-year senior secondary school.[447] The Gaokao, China's national
university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most
higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school
graduates are enrolled in higher education.[448] Vocational education
is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[449]
In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free
nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[450] Annual
education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more
than US$250 billion in 2011.[451] However, there remains an inequality
in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per
secondary school student in
Beijing

Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in
Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled
¥3,204.[452] Free compulsory education in
China

China consists of primary
school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In
2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.[453]
By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools,
and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.[454]
As of 2010[update], 94% of the population over age 15 are
literate.[455] In 1949, only 20% of the population could read,
compared to 65.5% thirty years later.[456] In 2009, Chinese students
from
Shanghai

Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics,
science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old
school pupils' scholastic performance.[457] Despite the high results,
Chinese education has also faced both native and international
criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality
from rural to urban areas.
Health
Main article: Health in China
See also: Pharmaceutical industry in China
Chart showing the rise of China's
Human Development Index

Human Development Index from 1970 to
2010
The National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its
counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of
the Chinese population.[458] An emphasis on public health and
preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the
early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic
Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene,
as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as
cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in
China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping
began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese
public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of
the free public health services provided in the countryside
disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China
became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in
quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare
provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[459] By 2011, the campaign
resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance
coverage.[460] In 2011,
China

China was estimated to be the world's
third-largest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has
suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit
medications.[461]
As of 2012[update], the average life expectancy at birth in
China

China is
75 years,[462] and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand.[463]
Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[u] Rates of
stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1%
in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[466] Despite significant improvements in
health and the construction of advanced medical facilities,
China

China has
several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses
caused by widespread air pollution,[467] hundreds of millions of
cigarette smokers,[468] and an increase in obesity among urban
youths.[469][470] China's large population and densely populated
cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as
the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely
contained.[471] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature
deaths in China.[472]
Religion
Main article: Religion in China
Freedom of religion

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although
religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to
state persecution.[253][473] The government of the People's Republic
of
China

China is officially atheist. Religious affairs and issues in the
country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious
Affairs.[474]
Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by
various religious movements. The "three teachings", including
Confucianism, Taoism, and
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically
have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,[475][476]
enriching a theological and spiritual framework which harkens back to
the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese popular or folk religion,
which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions,[477]
consists in allegiance to the shen (神), a character that signifies
the "energies of generation", who can be deities of the environment or
ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture
heroes, many of whom feature in
Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology and history.[478]
Among the most popular cults are those of Mazu (goddess of the
seas),[479] Huangdi (one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese
race),[479][480]
Guandi

Guandi (god of war and business),
Caishen

Caishen (god of
prosperity and richness),
Pangu

Pangu and many others.
China

China is home to many
of the world's tallest religious statues, including the tallest of
all, the
Spring Temple Buddha

Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.
Clear data on religious affiliation in
China

China is difficult to gather
due to varying definitions on "religion" and the unorganized,
diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that
in
China

China there is no clear boundary between three teachings religions,
Buddhism,
Taoism

Taoism and local folk religious practice.[475] A 2015 poll
conducted by Gallup International found that 61% of Chinese people
self-identified as "convinced atheist",[481] though it is worthwhile
to note that Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable
as non-theistic and humanistic religions, since they do not believe
that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent
in the world and in particular in the human being.[482] According to a
2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practise
Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are
Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including
Taoists

Taoists and folk
salvationism.[483][484] In addition to Han people's local religious
practices, there are also various ethnic minority groups in
China

China who
maintain their traditional autochthone religions. The various folk
salvationisms today comprise 2–3% of the population, while
Confucianism

Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the
intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to
certain ethnic groups include Tibetan
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism and the Islamic
religion of the Hui people, also of Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other
peoples in the Northwest China.
Temple of the Great Buddha in Midong, Urumqi, Xinjiang.
China

China has many
of the tallest statues in the world, and most of them represent
deities and buddhas.
Temple of the White Sulde of
Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan in the town of Uxin in Inner
Mongolia, in the Mu Us Desert. Religion in Inner
Mongolia

Mongolia blends
Chinese and
Mongolian folk religious

Mongolian folk religious traditions.
Xuanyuan Temple

Xuanyuan Temple in Huangling, Yan'an, Shaanxi, dedicated to the
worship of the
Yellow Emperor

Yellow Emperor (said to be the ancestor of all Chinese)
at the ideal sacred centre of China.[v]
Temple of
Guandi

Guandi in Chaoyang, Liaoning. Religion in
Northeast China

Northeast China is
characterised by the interaction of folk religions of Chinese and
Manchus (Manchu folk religion). Confucian religious movements like
Shanrendao

Shanrendao are widespread.
Taoist priests of the Zhengyi order bowing during a rite at the White
Cloud Temple of Shanghai.
Taoism

Taoism is a set of orders of philosophy and
rite that operate as frameworks of Chinese religion, alongside
vernacular ritual traditions.
Larung Gar Academy of Tibetan
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism in Sêrtar, Garzê, Sichuan.
Founded in the 1980s, it is now the largest monastic institution in
the world, with about 40,000 members of which 1/10 Han Chinese.
The City of the Eight Symbols in Qi, Hebi, is the headquarters of the
Weixinist Church in Henan.
Weixinism

Weixinism is a 21st-century renewal
movement of
Chinese religion
.jpg/520px-Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan'an,_Shaanxi_(1).jpg)
Chinese religion and philosophy.
Temple of the City God of Sheng County, Zhejiang. City Gods are
tutelary deities of administrative units whose worship became common
by the late Tang dynasty. Generally, they are deified historical
persons from that given locality who distinguished themselves through
extraordinary attainments.
Temple of the Culture
Deity

Deity (Confucius) in Liuzhou, Guangxi. Confucius
is widely worshipped as the Culture
Deity

Deity in popular religion.
Confucianism

Confucianism as a religion is practised by Confucian churches, for
instance the
Holy Confucian Church
_logo.svg/260px-Holy_Confucian_Church_of_China_(Kongshenghui)_logo.svg.png)
Holy Confucian Church established in 2009 in Shenzhen.
Culture
Main articles:
Chinese culture

Chinese culture and Culture of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China
The Temple of Heaven, a center of heaven worship and an
UNESCO

UNESCO World
Heritage site, symbolizes the Interactions Between Heaven and
Mankind.[486]
Classical Gardens of Suzhou
Since ancient times,
Chinese culture

Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by
Confucianism

Confucianism and conservative philosophies. For much of the country's
dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided
by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which
have their origins in the Han dynasty.[487] The literary emphasis of
the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in
China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were
higher forms of art than dancing or drama.
Chinese culture

Chinese culture has long
emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking
national perspective.[28] Examinations and a culture of merit remain
greatly valued in
China

China today.[488]
The first leaders of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China were born into the
traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth
Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional
aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the
Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the
family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers
see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a
continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others
claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of
Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the
Cultural Revolution

Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional
culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and
harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of
traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art,
literature, and performing arts like Peking opera,[489] were altered
to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access
to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[490]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of
traditional
Chinese culture

Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With
the rise of
Chinese nationalism

Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural
Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature,
music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous
revival,[491][492] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked
interest nationally and even worldwide.[493]
China

China is now the
third-most-visited country in the world,[494] with 55.7 million
inbound international visitors in 2010.[495] It also experiences an
enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese
holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone.[496]
Literature
Main article: Chinese literature
The stories in
Journey to the West

Journey to the West are common themes in Peking opera
Chinese literature

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou
dynasty.[497] Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts
present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar,
military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others.[498] Some
of the most important early texts include the
I Ching

I Ching and the Shujing
within the
Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian
authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic
era.[499] Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese
poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty.
Li Bai

Li Bai and Du
Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism
and realism respectively.[500]
Chinese historiography

Chinese historiography began with the
Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China
is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for
Chinese fictions along with
Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology and folklore.[501]
Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese
classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and
demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels
which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to
the West and Dream of the Red Chamber.[502] Along with the wuxia
fictions of
Jin Yong

Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng,[503] it remains an enduring
source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere.[504]
In the wake of the
New Culture Movement

New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing
dynasty,
Chinese literature

Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written
vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens.
Hu Shih

Hu Shih and
Lu Xun

Lu Xun were
pioneers in modern literature.[505] Various literary genres, such as
misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen
literature, which is influenced by magic realism,[506] emerged
following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author,
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.[507]
Cuisine
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese foods originated from different regional cuisines: laziji from
Sichuan

Sichuan in the west, xiaolongbao from
Jiangsu
.svg/550px-Jiangsu_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Jiangsu in the east, rice noodle
roll from
Cantonese

Cantonese in the south and
Peking duck

Peking duck from
Shandong
.svg/550px-Shandong_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Shandong in the
north.[508]
Chinese cuisine
.jpg)
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of
culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most
influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including
Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and
Zhejiang
.svg/550px-Zhejiang_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Zhejiang cuisines.[509] All of them are featured by the precise skills
of shaping, heating, colorway and flavoring.[510]
Chinese cuisine
.jpg)
Chinese cuisine is
also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients,[511] as
well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese
medicine.[512] Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south,
wheat based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common
people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables,
with meat reserved for special occasions. And the bean products, such
as tofu and soy milk, remain as a popular source of protein.[513] Pork
is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about
three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.[514] While pork
dominates the meat market, there is also pork-free Buddhist cuisine
and Chinese Islamic cuisine. Southern cuisine, due to the area's
proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of
seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the
wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of
Chinese food, such as
Hong Kong

Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food,
have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.
Sports
Main articles:
Sport in China

Sport in China and
China

China at the Olympics
Dragon boat

Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport
China

China has become a prime sports destination worldwide. The country
gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments
including the 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2015 World Championships in
Athletics, the upcoming
2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup

2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup and the
upcoming 2022 Winter Olympics.
China

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is
evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was practiced during the Western
Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely related
to association football[515] date back to China's early dynasties as
well.[516]
Physical fitness

Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning
exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced,[517]
and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity
across the country.[518] Basketball is currently the most popular
spectator sport in China.[519] The
Chinese Basketball Association

Chinese Basketball Association and
the American
National Basketball Association

National Basketball Association have a huge following
among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao
Ming and
Yi Jianlian

Yi Jianlian held in high esteem.[520] China's professional
football league, now known as Chinese Super League, was established in
1994, it is the largest football market in Asia.[521] Other popular
sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton,
swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as wéiqí in
Chinese), xiangqi, mahjong, and more recently chess, are also played
at a professional level.[522] In addition,
China

China is home to a huge
number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of
2012[update].[398] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat
racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also
popular.[523]
China

China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it
has only participated as the PRC since 1952.
China

China hosted the 2008
Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals
– the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that
year.[524]
China

China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012
Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold
medals.[525][526] In 2011,
Shenzhen

Shenzhen in Guangdong,
China

China hosted the
2011 Summer Universiade.
China

China hosted the
2013 East Asian Games

2013 East Asian Games in
Tianjin

Tianjin and the
2014 Summer Youth Olympics

2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing.
Beijing

Beijing and its
nearby city
Zhangjiakou

Zhangjiakou of
Hebei
.svg/550px-Hebei_in_China_(_all_claims_hatched).svg.png)
Hebei province will also collaboratively
host the 2022 Olympic Winter Games, which will make
Beijing

Beijing the first
city in the world to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter
Olympics.[527]
See also
China

China portal
Asia
.svg/440px-Asia_on_the_globe_(Asia_centered).svg.png)
Asia portal
Index of China-related articles
Outline of China
Footnotes
^ Romanized as "Peking" prior to the adoption of Pinyin.
^ Portuguese (
Macau

Macau only), English (
Hong Kong

Hong Kong only).
^ In the special administrative regions of
Hong Kong

Hong Kong and Macau,
Traditional Chinese characters
.svg/200px-Hanzi_(traditional).svg.png)
Traditional Chinese characters are used
^ Ethnic minorities that are recognized officially.
^
Xi Jinping
_(cropped).jpg/440px-Xi_Jinping_October_2013_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg)
Xi Jinping holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of the
Communist Party of China

Communist Party of China (de facto paramount leader), President of the
People's Republic

People's Republic of
China

China (de jure head of state), and Chairman of
the Central Military Commission (Commander-in-chief) for both state
and party.[6]
^ According to the official
Orders of precedence in China

Orders of precedence in China (i.e. party
comes first), the order of Wang would be inferior to the members of
the Standing Committee of Politburo of CPC as he was not appointed
office in the 19th Central Committee.
^ The area given is the official
United Nations

United Nations figure for the
mainland and excludes Hong Kong,
Macau

Macau and Taiwan.[10] It also
excludes the Trans-
Karakoram

Karakoram Tract (5,800 km2 or
2,200 sq mi),
Aksai Chin

Aksai Chin (37,244 km2 or
14,380 sq mi) and other territories in dispute with India.
The total area of
China

China is listed as 9,572,900 km2
(3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[11] For
further information, see Territorial changes of the People's Republic
of China.
^ This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World
Factbook.[12]
^ The
Hong Kong

Hong Kong Dollar is used in
Hong Kong

Hong Kong and
Macau

Macau while the
Macanese pataca

Macanese pataca is used in
Macau

Macau only.
^ Except
Hong Kong

Hong Kong and Macau.
^ The total area ranking relative to the
United States

United States depends on the
measurement of the total areas of
China

China and the United States. See
List of countries and dependencies by area

List of countries and dependencies by area for more information.
^ "[...] Next vnto this, is found the great China, whose kyng is
thought to bee the greatest prince in the worlde, and is named Santoa
Raia".[31][32]
^ "[...] The Very Great Kingdom of China".[33] (Portuguese: ...O
Grande Reino da China...).[34]
^ Eden used the now obsolete form Chinish: "...whence the Chinishe
nation haue theyr prouision for shppyng..."[37]
^ Although this is the present meaning of guó, in
Old Chinese

Old Chinese (when
its pronunciation was something like /*qʷˤək/)[45] it meant the
walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from
them.[46]
^ Its use is attested from the 6th-century Classic of History, which
states "Huangtian bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central
state to the ancestors"
(皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[47]
^ Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "burning of
books and burying of scholars", the destruction of the confiscated
copies at
Xianyang

Xianyang was an event similar to the destructions of the
Library of Alexandria

Library of Alexandria in the west. Even those texts that did survive
had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or
forgery.[72] The
Old Texts

Old Texts of the
Five Classics were said to have been
found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in Qufu. Mei Ze's
"rediscovered" edition of the
Book of Documents

Book of Documents was only shown to be a
forgery in the Qing dynasty.
^ According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the
United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is
slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook
states that China's total area was greater than that of the United
States until the coastal waters of the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes was added to the
United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total
area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2
(3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The
listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2
(3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes areas and
the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2
(3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2
(3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2
(3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
^ China's border with
Pakistan

Pakistan and part of its border with
India

India falls
in the disputed region of Kashmir. The area under Pakistani
administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian
administration is claimed by Pakistan.
^ Tsung-Dao Lee,[366] Chen Ning Yang,[366] Daniel C. Tsui,[367]
Charles K. Kao,[368] Yuan T. Lee,[369] Tu Youyou[370]
^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in
1949 to 75 years in 2008,[464] and infant mortality decreased from 300
per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[465]
^ The
Yellow Emperor

Yellow Emperor (Huangdi 黄帝) is often presented as the
ancestor of both
Chinese people

Chinese people and Chinese civilization. In Chinese
religion, he embodies or grasps the axis mundi (Kunlun Mountain), the
hub of creation, identifying with the spring of the universe (天
Tiān).[485]
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^ "第一章 中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣".
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^ "金庸作品从流行穿越至经典" Archived 22 July 2015 at the
Wayback Machine.. 包头日报. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
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^ "新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅".
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^ "魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说" Archived 23 July 2015 at
the Wayback Machine.. 文学评论. February 2006. Retrieved 18 July
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^ "莫言:寻根文学作家". 东江时报. 12 October 2012.
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^ "鲁菜泰斗颜景祥". 凤凰网山东. 16 September 2013.
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^ "Eight Major Cuisines". chinese.cn. 2 June 2011. Archived from the
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^ "中医强调"药疗不如食疗" 食疗有三大优势".
antpedia.com. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
^ "中国居民豆类及豆制品的消费现状".
中国食物与营养. January 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
^ "China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry".
Forbes. 19 June 2013.
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Further reading
Bowman, John S. (2000), Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and
Culture, New York:
Columbia University

Columbia University Press
Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the
21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press.
ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.
Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US
Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and
the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic
Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3.
pp. 263–304. Abstract.
Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007).
China

China Bibliography – Online.
China-Profile.com.
Jacques, Martin (2009).When
China

China Rules the World: The End of the
Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books. Rev.
ed. (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1
Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power",
Foreign Affairs, vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018),
pp. 83–93.
Lagerwey, John (2010). China: A Religious State. Hong Kong: University
of
Hong Kong

Hong Kong Press. ISBN 9888028049.
Sang Ye (2006).
China

China Candid: The People on the People's Republic.
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24514-8.
Selden, Mark (1979). The
People's Republic

People's Republic of China: Documentary
History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press.
ISBN 0-85345-532-5.
Shambaugh, David L. (2008). China's Communist Party: Atrophy and
Adaptation. Washington, D.C.; Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 9780520254923.
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