Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá
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The Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá was a process of forced
transculturation Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1940 (from the article Our America by José Martí) to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. Transculturation encompasses more than transition from ...
or
acculturation Acculturation is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society. Acculturation is a process in which an individual adopts, acquires and ...
in the areas (
Tacna Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
,
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
and
Tarapacá San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile. History The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego d ...
) which were invaded and incorporated by
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
since the
War of the Pacific The War of the Pacific ( es, link=no, Guerra del Pacífico), also known as the Saltpeter War ( es, link=no, Guerra del salitre) and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought ...
(1879–1883). The aim of the Chilenization was to create a dominance of Chilean traditions and culture in that region, in preference to those of the Peruvian population. The British desire to reunite all
saltpeter Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . This alkali metal nitrate salt is also known as Indian saltpetre (large deposits of which were historically mined in India). It is an ionic salt of potassium ions K+ and nitrat ...
mines under one political administration was also a major factor that influenced the outcome of the war. After the failure of Chile to ratify the Billinghurst-Latorre protocol, Chile began in the provinces of Tacna and Arica a policy which has been called "Chilenization". This has consisted in the closing of school conducted by Peruvians, the extension of the military zone to Tacna, the dismissal of Peruvian prelates and interference with Peruvian religious establishments, the initiation of a Chilean press propaganda and restrictions upon Peruvian press and political agitation, and a colonization policy for Chileans.


Background

Starting from the
Chilean silver rush Between 1830 and 1850 Chilean silver mining grew at an unprecedented pace which transformed mining into one of the country's principal sources of wealth. The rush caused rapid demographic, infrastructural, and economic expansion in the semi-arid ...
in the 1830s, Atacama (a Bolivian region) was prospected and populated by Chileans backed by Chilean and European (mainly British) capital.Bethell, Leslie. 1993. ''Chile Since Independence''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13-14. Chilean and foreign enterprises in the region eventually extended their control to the Bolivian saltpeter mines. During the 1870s, Peru capitalized on the guano exploitation and nationalized all industries in Tarapacá, but Bolivian enterprises in its territory remained in private hands. Peru controlled 58.8% of all saltpeter production, while Chile held 19% and the United Kingdom 13.5%.''British Influence on the Salt: The Origin, Nature and Decline''
Soto Cárdenas, Alejandro. Santiago : Ed. University of Santiago de Chile, 1998. Page 50
According to the 1876 census Peruvians represented the majority of the population in Tarapacá, followed by Chileans and Bolivians. Conflicts between Chilean and Bolivian miners were common in Peruvian saltpeterworks. However, there was no dispute about the Peruvian sovereignty of this territory. In fact, before the war, Peru's southern border was with Bolivia and not Chile. After the War of the Pacific and the
Treaty of Ancón The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón District, Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the ...
, the Tarapacá Department was given unconditionally to Chile, with Moqueguan Tacna and
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
being awarded to Chile being reorganized into the new
Tacna Province Tacna is the largest of four provinces in the Department of Tacna in southern Peru located on the border with Chile and Bolivia. Its capital is Tacna. Geography The Tacna Province is bounded to the north by the Jorge Basadre Province and the Ta ...
, under the condition that a plebiscite be carried out ten years down the line. Such a plebiscite would never take place, however.


Peruvian and Chilean activity


Territorial administration

In 1884, the
Tacna Province Tacna is the largest of four provinces in the Department of Tacna in southern Peru located on the border with Chile and Bolivia. Its capital is Tacna. Geography The Tacna Province is bounded to the north by the Jorge Basadre Province and the Ta ...
was created by Chile, being divided into three Departments: Tarata,
Tacna Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
, and
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
. The
Tarapacá Province Tarapacá was a province in Chile, from 1883 to 1928. It was ceded to Chile under the Treaty of Ancón, formerly being part of the Peruvian province of the same name. History The province was created in 1883, having been awarded to Chile under t ...
was also created, being divided into the departments of Pisagua and
Tarapacá San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile. History The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego d ...
(after 1927 Iquique). Chilean government institutions were put into place, and streets were renamed: Discrimination against the Peruvian population was notorious in the public works promoted by the Chilean government such as one that harmed the oasis of Pica and the nearby valleys of Quisma and
Matilla Matilla is a Chilean village and oasis in the interior of Atacama Desert. It lies four kilometers southwest of the oasis town of Pica. As of 2017 Matilla had 380 inhabitants and 217 homes. It host underground aqueducts in various states of decay. ...
, since their waters were expropriated to supply
Iquique Iquique () is a port city and commune in northern Chile, capital of both the Iquique Province and Tarapacá Region. It lies on the Pacific coast, west of the Pampa del Tamarugal, which is part of the Atacama Desert. It has a population of 191,468 ...
. Chileanization did not have a positive effect on the already existing population, as the Chilean newspaper ''La Voz de Valparaíso'' noted: The process of Chileanization of Tacna and Arica was directly related to the negotiations for the plebiscite established in the
Treaty of Ancón The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón District, Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the ...
.


Education

Chileanization was sponsored by the Chilean government, where classes were held with Chilean textbooks, and where disciplines such as gymnastics, pre-military exercises, and school shooting were emphasized. In contrast, the Peruvians of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá created and maintained their own schools, in order to instill Peruvian values in their children. The president of Peru
Nicolás de Piérola Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena (known as "''El Califa''" ("The Caliph"); January 5, 1839 – June 23, 1913) was a Peruvian politician and Minister of Finance of Peru, Minister of Finance who served as the 23rd and 31 ...
entrusted writer Modesto Molina with the organization of private schools in Tacna and Arica. Oswaldo Zeballos Ortiz, director of the "Peruvian School of Arica" expressed to his students, on December 23, 1899: At the beginning of the year 1900, the Chilean government decided to close all Peruvian schools. In June of the same year, materials arrived for the Chilean public schools that would be created in the territories of Tacna and Arica, and which began operating on March 1, 1901. Faced with the measure adopted by the Chilean authorities, the Peruvian inhabitants decided to create clandestine education centers. Thus, for example, the Peruvian historian
Jorge Basadre Jorge Alfredo Basadre Grohmann (February 12, 1903 – June 29, 1980) was a Peruvian historian known for his extensive publications about the independent history of his country. He served during two different administrations as Minister of Educa ...
had to study in a clandestine school called "Santa Rosa", directed by the Peruvian Carlota Pinto de Gamallo, using the Chilean text of José Abelardo Núñez, until he traveled to Lima aged nine. Valparaíso's ''La Unión'' newspaper noted: In all lyceums, Peruvian students were forced to wear a Chilean
cockade A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat or cap. Eighteenth century In the 18th and 19th centuries, coloured cockades were used in Europe to show the allegia ...
and sing the Chilean national anthem.


Military

Chile established compulsory military service in September 1900, through Law № 1,362, on "Recruits and Replacements of the Army and Navy", which established compulsory conscription for men between 20 and 45 years of age, for a period of one year. The Chilean authorities applied such regulations on the provinces of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá. The Supreme Court of Chile, in October 1917, when resolving an appeal in the fund filed by young children of Peruvians born in the Province of Tacna, considered that the territories of Tacna and Arica were fully subject to Chilean sovereignty and formed an integral part of its territory and that, therefore, people born there after the conclusion of the Ancón Treaty, even if they were children of Peruvians, were Chileans and had to comply with the obligations imposed on them by the law on army recruits and replacements. Therefore, young Peruvians living in the Tacna and Arica area were recruited and sent to
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whose ...
to serve in the
Chilean Army The Chilean Army ( es, Ejército de Chile) is the land arm of the Military of Chile. This 80,000-person army (9,200 of which are conscripts) is organized into six divisions, a special operations brigade and an air brigade. In recent years, and a ...
. As a result, in order not to perform military service, Peruvian men within the conscription age range began to leave the area, declining in population the cities of
Tacna Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
and
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
and turning them into cities inhabited by Peruvian women, the elderly, and children. Similar situations also occurred in
Tarapacá San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile. History The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego d ...
, although on a smaller scale and in a different context. In Tarapacá, the population of Peruvian origin was not the majority and Peru had relinquished its sovereignty over the area according to the
Treaty of Ancón The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón District, Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the ...
. By 1919 in Tacna, due to conscription for military service, of the 19,000 remaining inhabitants, 8,000 were Chilean military; for this reason, many women from Tacna remained single. This scenario is described in the play'' La Senorita de Tacna'' by
Mario Vargas Llosa Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa, 1st Marquess of Vargas Llosa (born 28 March 1936), more commonly known as Mario Vargas Llosa (, ), is a Peruvian novelist, journalist, essayist and former politician, who also holds Spanish citizenship. Vargas Ll ...
, based on the experiences of his aunt Mamaé (where he relates how "Elvira" has a sentimental relationship with "Joaquín", a Chilean officer, reading verses by the poet
Federico Barreto Federico Barreto (1862 in Tacna - 1929 in Marseille, France) was a Peruvian poet and writer best known for his poetry collection ''El cantor del cautiverio''. Early life Barreto's father was a colonel in the Peruvian Army. Barreto himself was ...
).


Religion

In ecclesiastical matters, although owned by Chile, the territories of Tacna and Arica continued to depend on the Diocese of Arequipa, in Peru, as had been ordered by the
Holy See The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of Rome ...
. Peruvian priests used their position to keep their attachment to their homeland alive, through the use of the pulpit. The preaching and the sermon were projected in the homes to the Peruvian citizens, who in social gatherings, pamphlets and civic events also showed their identification with their national origin. In 1909, a secret document was circulated, prepared by a Chilean Special Consultative Commission, which recommended, in order to secure the territories of Tacna and Arica for itself, to " €¦expel the Peruvian priests and replace them with other Chilean ones." Soon after, in order to dismantle the nationalism of the Peruvians, Chile chose to replace the priests of Peruvian origin, beginning with the parish priests. This policy would have repercussions on the relations between the Holy See and the Chilean government and would generate the incidents between the FECh and Monsignor Sibilia, the papal nuncio in 1913. The mayor of Tacna, Máximo Lira, on February 27, 1910, decreed the expulsion of such priests, in compliance with the orders issued by the minister Agustín Edwards Mac-Clure; They were detained at the police station by the prefect Manuel Barahona and, on the following March 15, guarded by nine police officers, they were taken to Sama. The expelled priests were: José María Flores Mextre (parish priest of Tacna); Juan Vitaliano Berroa (parish priest of Arica); Francisco Quiroz (priest of Tacna); José Mariano Indacochea Zeballos (priest of Codpa); José Félix Cáceres (priest of Tarata);
Juan Gualberto Guevara Juan Gualberto Guevara B.A. J.C.D. (12 July 1882 – 27 November 1954) was created on 18 February 1946 a Cardinal Priest by Pope Pius XII. He was Archbishop of Lima in the Roman Catholic Church. He was the first Cardinal of Peru. Biography E ...
(auxiliary of the Arica parish, who later was cardinal and archbishop of Lima); Esteban Toccafondi (priest of Sama). This fact motivated a new break in diplomatic relations between Peru and Chile. On the other hand, when the military chaplains of Chile assumed part of the task of creating feelings of Chileanness in the region, the celebration of the Virgen de las Peñas festival was prohibited, promoting its replacement by the veneration of the Virgen del Carmen. patron of the Chilean Army. Likewise, the
Fiesta de La Tirana Fiesta de la Tirana is an annual festival held in the locality of La Tirana in the Tarapacá Region of northern Chile. The celebration takes place on July 16 in honor of the ''Virgen del Carmen''. La Tirana is the biggest geographically localized ...
, a religious celebration of
Aymara Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
origin, which at the end of the 19th century was held on various dates - August 6 for Bolivians, July 28 for Peruvians, and July 16 for the Chileans–, around 1910, it was included in the Chilean calendar, setting a single day for it: July 16, evoking the
Virgen del Carmen Our Lady of Mount Carmel, or Virgin of Carmel, is the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary in her role as patroness of the Carmelite Order, particularly within the Catholic Church. The first Carmelites were Christian hermits living on Mount Car ...
; being affected in this way the old brotherhoods of Peruvian and Bolivian origin.


Lodges and civil organizations

The Peruvian inhabitants, in order to preserve the national values in the areas owned by Chile, and promote the collection of funds for the eventual payment, stipulated in the Treaty of Ancón, established various associations and
Masonic lodges A Masonic lodge, often termed a private lodge or constituent lodge, is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. It is also commonly used as a term for a building in which such a unit meets. Every new lodge must be warranted or chartered ...
. In 1893 the Peruvian lodge "Constancia y Concordia" was created in Tacna, presided over by Rómulo Cúneo Vidal. Towards 1898 there were in Arica the Peruvian lodges "Morro de Arica" №12, dependent on the Supreme Confederate Council of Peru and "Universal Fraternity" №20, dependent on the Grand Lodge of Peru. On the other hand, in the area of Tarapacá, under Chilean rule, Peruvian lodges were also formed. Thus, for example, in Iquique the lodges "Fraternidad y Progreso" №9, "Unión Fraternal" №13, and in Pisagua, the symbolic lodge "Caridad" №15, founded in 1894 by Alfredo Corrales, dependent on the Supreme Confederate Council of the Peru. The latter came under the control of the Grand Lodge of Chile, as "Caridad" №26, on December 31, 1896. On October 25, 1897, José M. Trucios asked the Peruvian Lodge "Morro de Arica" №12 for its documentation in order to incorporate it into the Grand Lodge of Chile; On which it came to depend on February 28, 1898, under №29. In July 1901, the "Naval Ladies League" was founded in Arica to contribute to the collection carried out in Lima for the purchase of a warship. From April 1900, the Arica lodges "Universal Fraternity" and "Morro de Arica" and the Tacnean "Constancia y Concordia" began to hold joint meetings, encouraged by the Grand Lodge of Peru. In 1904, the lodge "Universal Fraternity" №20 ended its activities, with Julio Arturo Ego-Aguirre being its last president, recognizing that it was threatened by dangers which it had to face. The lodge "Morro de Arica" №29, due to the death of some of its members, the abandonment of the city by others and the disconnection with the Peruvian central, also ended its activities in 1904. The remaining members joined the lodge of Tacna "Constancia y Concordia".


Patriotic Leagues

In 1909 Chilean ultra-nationalist civil organizations were created, called patriotic leagues, with names such as "Mano Negra", "Mazorqueros", "Sociedad Estrella de Chile", "Patriotic League of Tacna", which persecuted the Peruvians, setting fire to houses, schools, newspapers, clubs, shops and brothels. The paramilitaries, under an alleged protection of the Chilean government, committed murders, disappearances, and expelled Peruvian inhabitants. They promoted their actions through flyers such as "El Eco Patrio", "El Ajicito", "El Corvo", "El Roto Chileno", "La Liga Patriótica", "El Chileno", "El Lucas Gómez", "El Plebiscito". The Chilean government tried to dissolve these organizations in 1912, but did not achieve its objective. In 1919 Belisario Salinas, of the Patriotic League of Antofagasta, proposed, in order to replace the Peruvian and Bolivian values with the Chilean ones, to promote the celebration of the battles of Maipú and La Concepción, removing Peruvian flags from the Peruvian consulate in Iquique. 28 of July. Regarding the Tarapacá area,
Lautaro Núñez Atencio Lautaro Núñez Atencio, (Iquique 24 January 1936) is a Chilean historian winner of the Chilean National History Award The Chilean National History Award (Spanish: ''Premio Nacional de Historia''), part of the National Prize of Chile, is an award ...
, an archaeologist from Iquique descended from Peruvians and winner of the Chilean National History Award, points out that "'' €¦organized groups known as the Patriotic Leagues provoked the expulsion of Peruvians through actions where violence was the main instrument. Murders, robberies, discrimination and abuses of all kinds, were a thing of every day €¦it is clear that these are dramatic events that occurred in the Tarapacá region, as if that captive god before the Incas, the mischievous Tarapacá, would have forever marked the captive destiny of the region €¦This time captive in the provinces that became Chilean and fell into the hands of xenophobic demons €¦"''. The Federation of Students of the University of Chile openly criticized the jingoism, xenophobia and militarism in its official magazine "Claridad". Their position was the return of Tacna and Arica to Peru. When they condemned the Chilean government for the absurd mobilization called the ''War of Don Ladislao'' just to distract citizens' attention, on July 21, 1920 its headquarters was attacked and destroyed by nationalist groups and its leaders were arrested.


Press

Newspapers published in Tacna and Arica highlighted Peruvian patriotic values, some of which came to be closed down by the Chilean authority. Meanwhile, newspapers published by Chileans in the area were used to promote Chileanization and attack the editors of Peruvian newspapers. On the role of the press, in the newspaper ''La Unión de Valparaíso'', in March 1901, it was stated that:


Administration

Article 3 of the Ancón Treaty provided that the provinces of Tacna and Arica, although legally Peruvian, would remain in the possession of the Chilean State for ten years, after which a popular plebiscite would determine their fate. While some organizations and individuals supported the forced assimilation, others rejected it. In 1921 Dr. Carlos Vicuña Fuentes, at that time a member of the
Radical Party of Chile The Radical Party (Spanish: ''Partido Radical'') was a Chilean political party. It was formed in 1863 in Copiapó by a split in the Liberal Party. Not coincidentally, it was formed shortly after the organization of the Grand Lodge of Chile, and ...
, expressed himself thus before a large political assembly in Santiago: However, by the time the historian
Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (August 25, 1831 – January 25, 1886) was a Chilean writer, journalist, historian and politician. Vicuña Mackenna was of Irish and Basque descent. Biography Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna was born in Santiago, the ...
pronounced his famous phrase "Do not let go of the '' Morro''" ('' es, No soltéis el Morro''), which fellow historian Gonzalo Bulnes considered a historical cry, the definitive annexation of Tacna and especially Arica had become the majority's opinion in Chilean society.Narda Henríquez "El hechizo de las imágenes-Elementos de género en el discurso nacionalista chileno


Events


Tacna

The Bank of Tacna, which, closed in 1880 due to the war, reopened in 1884 under Chilean legislation, but its banknotes circulated stamped as Bolivians. The bank was liquidated on April 7, 1921 in accordance with Chilean policy. Andrés Freyre's ''La Revista del Sur'', published since 1866 in Tacna, was closed by order of the Chilean authority in 1880. In 1882 ''El Tacora'' appeared, from the same family. ''El Tacora'' by Roberto Freyre Arias, was the Peruvian newspaper that published criticism of the Chilean military, administrative and judicial authorities. An insert of this newspaper published in 1902 the Anthem of Tacna that Modesto Molina wrote in 1886. On February 9, 1900, private schools in Tacna were closed under the "Primary Instruction Law of 1860." The closure led to the creation of clandestine schools that operated in Peruvian homes. On November 28, 1910, a group of assailants attacked the Freyre family, looted the printing press and the family's house that was two blocks from the police headquarters on San Martín Street. The next morning, the residents of Alameda and San Martín streets collaborated with the Freyres to rebuild the printing press. The printing press was partially rebuilt. The Chilean paramilitary group known as '' Los Mazorqueros'' expelled Peruvians and painted a black cross on their houses. In some shops, products were not sold to Peruvians. Peruvian patriotic celebrations were prohibited in Tacna and Arica, but not foreign ones such as Italian ones. The Peruvian population channeled through Manuel Portocarrero the complaints of intimidation, disappearances and deportations, which he took to the Plebiscitary Commission. In January 1925, General Pershing explained to the Commission that 710 deportations of Peruvians had been carried out, as in the English ship Ebro, sending Peruvians south of Arica. On June 2, 1926, the American ambassador William Collier collected the information that 250 Peruvians from Tacna and Arica lived in Santiago against his will. The intimidations caused others to take refuge in the Ucayali ship, in the Delegation of Limits, in Bolivia or north of the Sama River in Peru. On January 6, 1926, two hundred and fifty Chilean nationalists attacked Peruvians involved in the plebiscite. Admiral Gómez Carreño, Chilean Mayor of Tacna and collaborator, was also attacked. These events took place in front of the local police, without the aggressors receiving sanction. Similar events occurred on March 5, 1926, where the aggressors were supported by conspirators from Santiago. On November 19, 1926, a group of residents of the Aymara community of Challaviento assassinated 3 Chilean police officers and set fire to the Chilean barracks in the area. The community members of Challaviento accused the police of having raped a young woman and of murdering a Bolivian resident who served as mayor. Fearing reprisals, the Aymara communities of Toquela, Palquilla, Ataspaca, Caplina and Challaviento decided to withdraw north towards Peruvian territory. In 1927, the government of Peru granted a loan of £2,000 to pay for the damages suffered in Tacna by the owner of a pharmacy set on fire by a Chilean mob. Near the date of the plebiscite, the Chileanization caused the forced disappearance of Peruvians in Tacna, Tarata, Arica and their neighboring towns. This list was delivered to the U.S. arbitrator through the Peruvian Foreign Ministry. Monuments and commemorative plaques have been erected in Tacna and Tarata in memory of the disappeared in the plebiscitary days. This process affected the registration of voters for the plebiscite, for which the United States Secretary Frank Billings Kellogg decided that there would be no plebiscite; the reason: the conviction that it was impossible to celebrate the act if Chile exercised dominion in the disputed provinces. The historian from Tacna
Jorge Basadre Jorge Alfredo Basadre Grohmann (February 12, 1903 – June 29, 1980) was a Peruvian historian known for his extensive publications about the independent history of his country. He served during two different administrations as Minister of Educa ...
tells that his aunt Elvira Basadre married the manager of the Banco de Chile in Tacna and they were the parents of Federico Dahl Basadre, the historian's first cousin and childhood companion. In 1925 the two cousins returned to vote in the plebiscite. From Santiago, Federico Dahl Basadre voted for Chile and from Lima, Jorge Basadre voted for Peru.


Arica

Arica in 1887 had two Peruvian schools, one for boys and one for girls, with 204 students enrolled in total. In May 1892 the Peruvian Charity Society inaugurated the Peruvian Night School with 6 students. On June 24, 1894, the day of San Juan, the church of San Marcos de Arica had hoisted the Peruvian flag with the Masonic insignia, organized by the "Universal Fraternity" lodge. Both Peruvian and Chilean characters participated in the event. In 1896, the "Escuela de Niños №1" operated in Arica, directed by the Peruvian Antonio Zambrano. In September 1896, Julio D. Moreno founded the private school for Primary Instruction on Ayacucho street 6041 and in March 1897 the Society of Ladies of Arica created the "Peruvian School for Girls" on San Marcos street №5142, which later became I would call it "Colegio de Santa Rosa". In 1899, Osvaldo Zeballos Ortiz was the director of the "Escuela Peruana de Niños" which was run by the "Sociedad Peruana de Beneficencia de Arica", which had 104 students at the end of 1899. The ''Ariqueño''
Guillermo Billinghurst Guillermo Enrique Billinghurst Angulo (ie. William Henry Billinghurst) (Arica, July 27, 1851 – Iquique, June 28, 1915) was a Peruvian politician of English descent who served as the 37th President of Peru. He succeeded Augusto B. Leguía, fro ...
was the one who supported the creation of the newspaper "La Voz del Sur" on May 18, 1893, which was directed by Ernesto Zapata, then by Modesto Molina and in 1898 by José María Barreto,
Federico Barreto Federico Barreto (1862 in Tacna - 1929 in Marseille, France) was a Peruvian poet and writer best known for his poetry collection ''El cantor del cautiverio''. Early life Barreto's father was a colonel in the Peruvian Army. Barreto himself was ...
's brother. He emulated the style of the newspaper " El Comercio" that was published in Lima, accentuating Peruvian patriotic values, in contrast with the collaborationist "El Pacífico" newspaper. The July 28, 1897 edition of the newspaper"Morro de Arica" published the statement: The Peruvian national holidays, organized by the Peruvian Society of Charity, were celebrated with parades, speeches and other public events until July 30, and were attended by the Chilean authorities. The holiday of September 18, 1897 was also celebrated by the Chilean administration. The newspaper "Morro de Arica" published: Until 1899, the independence of Peru was normally celebrated on July 28, the independence of Chile on September 18 and September 20, celebrated by the Italian colony in Tacna and Arica. In 1900, two ships arrived in Arica: the '' Almirante Cochrane'' and the ''Mutilla'', which carried out military exercises until August. The governor of Arica, Manuel Montt, prohibited the celebrations of the independence of Peru on July 28, 1900. The newspaper ''Morro de Arica'' published: In Tacna, in August 1900, a military priest came from Santiago to perform public masses, as well as masses in the Arica hospital. The churches belonged to the dioceses of
Tacna Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
and
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
, which continued to depend on the
Archdiocese of Arequipa The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Arequipa ( la, Arequipensis) is an archdiocese located in the city of Arequipa in Peru. The Peruvian national holidays were also not celebrated on July 28, 1901. The Morro de Arica newspaper published a poem by Enrique del Piélago: On July 18, 1911, about eight hundred Chilean day laborers who worked on the Arica-La Paz railway, were in Tacna who attacked and destroyed in four hours, the Peruvian newspapers ''La Voz del Sur'' and ''El Tacora'' Then they entered the ''Club de la Unión'' where they destroyed the premises. The Freyre family, owners of ''La Voz del Sur'', accused the lawyer Salvador Allende Castro of the incident. Allende Castro was a
radical Radical may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics *Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change *Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and ...
and a
Freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
who spread a poem called ''El Morro'', using the words of a sonnet called ''El Altar del Sacrificio'' that the poet Federico Barreto had previously written from the Peruvian point of view. His son, future president
Salvador Allende Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens (, , ; 26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and socialist politician who served as the 28th president of Chile from 3 November 1970 until his death on 11 September 1973. He was the fir ...
, studied at the ''Liceo de Tacna'' from 1910 to 1918 and performed his military service in the ''Lanceros de Tacna'' regiment in 1924. Ariqueño Gerardo Vargas Hurtado was the founder of the newspaper ''El Ariqueño''. The newspaper ''El Morro de Arica'' was founded in 1893 by Alfredo Corrales and Nicasio Ruiz de Olavarría. Both newspapers published in Arica highlighted Peruvian values. ''El Morro de Arica'' was published until 1911 when it was closed by the Chilean authority. His rival was the newspaper ''El Chilenito'', founded by José Manuel Trucios.


Tarapacá

Before the war, in an official census of the government of Peru taken in 1876, it was established that the Chilean population in Tarapacá amounted to 9,664 people, equivalent to 25.28% of the total population of the area. By 1885, when the territory of Tarapacá had already been ceded to Chile by Peru, the General Census of the Population of Chile showed that 43.22% of the total population of Tarapacá was of Bolivian and Peruvian origin. In 1891, young Peruvians from
Tarapacá San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile. History The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego d ...
asked the government of
Eduardo López de Romaña Eduardo López de Romaña y Alvizuri (19 March 1847 – 26 May 1912) served as the 32nd President of Peru from September 1899 to September 1903. A member of the landowning elite, he was the first engineer to become President of the Republic ...
to subsidize scholarships at Peruvian national schools in the Department of Tarapacá. The Congress of Peru approved this request on November 7, 1891. In 1910 there were Peruvian printing shops, schools, firefighters, clubs, mutuals, companies, lodges, and priests in Tarapacá that coexisted without difficulty with the Chilean population. The
National Anthem of Peru The "" ("National Anthem of Peru"; also known as "", or "National March of Peru"; "", or "We are free!") is the national anthem of Peru. It was composed by José Bernardo Alcedo, and its lyrics were written by José de la Torre Ugarte in 1821. ...
continued to be heard. The beginning of the Chileanization took place with the emergence of the Patriotic Leagues that began the groundwork for an
ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer ...
of the northern provinces of Chile. In 1911 the Chilean government decreed the closure of Peruvian schools, and allowed the operation of a single educational center called ''Valparaíso High School'', directed by Juan Eduardo Edmonson, who appealed to his English surname to continue his work. In 1922, five illegal Peruvian schools were still operating in Pica. Also in Tarapacá, a woman named María Vernal was accused of providing illegal private classes. Her permission was denied on the grounds that she promoted Peruvian values. In 1926, the Peruvian teacher Ema Venegas in Alto San Antonio was accused of antipatriotism by not attending the celebration of September 18, as well as Haydee Murillo in Pica, whose teachings had to be monitored by the local authorities. Until 1930, the Chilean state had little concern in overseeing the educational work in Tarapacá. The labor newspaper ''El Despertar de los Trabajadores'' by Luis Emilio Recabarren, Chilean union leader, was one of those that suffered the filling and fire at the hands of the patriotic leagues. The same would happen with the newspapers ''La Voz del Sur'', ''El Tacora'', ''El Ariqueño'' and ''El Morro de Arica'', published in both Tacna and Arica. At the end of April 1918, the ''Pro Patria'' Committee decreed in Iquique the expulsion of 40,000 Peruvians including the so-called "almost Chileans", born to Peruvian parents. A black cross on the door indicated that the committee was confiscating the property and the residents were being expelled from Tarapacá. The pamphlet called ''El Lucas Gómez'' began to publish death certificates for those who had not yet left the city. The refugees arrived in El Callao and later formed the ''Tarapacá Urbanization.'' In Callao they were marginalized and treated as " Chileanized", again suffering discrimination from their compatriots, and they decided to go to Putumayo,
San Martín San Martín or San Martin may refer to: People Saints * Saint Martin (disambiguation)#People, name of various saints in Spanish Political leaders *Vicente San Martin (1839 -1901), Military, National hero of Mexico. *Basilio San Martin (1849 ...
,
Ramón Castilla Ramón Castilla y Marquesado (; 31 August 1797 – 30 May 1867) was a Peruvian ''caudillo'' who served as President of Peru three times as well as the Interim President of Peru (Revolution Self-proclaimed President) in 1863. His earliest pr ...
, Maynas and the Amazon Trapezoid. This last area would be ceded to chile under the Salomón-Lozano Treaty, which also would affect other settlements, with the original inhabitants moving south, re-forming their again lost homes.


See also

*
Treaty of Lima (1929) The Tacna–Arica compromise or Treaty of Lima was a series of documents that settled the territorial dispute of both Tacna and Arica provinces of Peru and Chile respectively. According to the Treaty, the Tacna-Arica Territory was divided betwee ...
*
Patriotic Leagues (Southern Cone) The Patriotic Leagues (Spanish: ''Ligas patrióticas'') were nationalistic political groups in Argentina and Chile active from the 1910s to the 1930s. The Patriotic Leagues were characterized by actions against foreignersPeruvians of Tacna, Arica, ...
* Colombianization of Leticia, Putumayo and Caquetá


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapaca Modern history of Chile Tacna Region History of Arica y Parinacota Region History of Tarapacá Region Cultural assimilation Ethnic cleansing in the Americas Anti-Peruvian sentiment