Cecil Cook (Australia)
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Cecil Evelyn Aufrere (Mick) Cook (23 September 1897 – 4 July 1985) was an Australian physician and medical administrator, who specialised in
tropical disease Tropical diseases are Infectious disease, diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropics, tropical and subtropics, subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, whic ...
s and
public health Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the det ...
. He was appointed as
Chief Medical Officer Chief medical officer (CMO) is the title used in many countries for the senior government official designated head of medical services, sometimes at the national level. The post is held by a physician who serves to advise and lead a team of medical ...
and
Protector of Aborigines The role of Protector of Aborigines was first established in South Australia in 1836. The role became established in other parts of Australia pursuant to a recommendation contained in the ''Report of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Abori ...
for the
Northern Territory The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an states and territories of Australia, Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory ...
in 1927. He established much of the infrastructure of the public health system there, including four hospitals, a
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in ...
clinic, a nursing school and the Nurses’ Board of North Australia. He started the Northern Territory Aerial Medical Service together with Dr
Clyde Fenton Clyde Cornwall Fenton OBE (16 May 1901 – 28 February 1982) was the Northern Territory's first flying doctor. Unlike the other doctors with the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia, Fenton was also his own pilot. Fenton was a self-t ...
, and he was founding chairman of the Northern Territory Medical Board. Cook served in the Army Medical Service from 1940 to 1945 where he increased the level of hygiene within the troops through education. He became the Commissioner of Public Health in Western Australia in 1946 and then joined the National Health and Medical Research Committee in
Canberra Canberra ( ) is the capital city of Australia. Founded following the federation of the colonies of Australia as the seat of government for the new nation, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The ci ...
in 1950 where he was able to contribute to public health. He was controversial for his attempts to "uplift the morality" of
Aboriginal people Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
by "breeding out the colour".


Early life and education

Cook was born on 23 September 1897 in Bexhill, Sussex, England. His mother was Emily (née Puckle), and he had an older brother, Errol Aufrere, who was born in 1895. His father, James Whiteford Murray Cook, moved to Australia soon after Cecil was born after being advised to relocate to a warmer climate due to a serious ear infection, and the family followed in 1900 to live in
Barcaldine, Queensland Barcaldine () is a rural town and suburbs and localities (Australia), locality in the Barcaldine Region in Queensland, Australia. This is the administrative centre of the Barcaldine Region. Barcaldine played a major role in the Australian labou ...
. Dr James Cook became the Lodge doctor in Barcaldine and he was medical superintendent of the Victoria Hospital, positions he held for thirty years. He was very well regarded, credited with bringing Victoria Hospital "into a new era of respectability and service to the public".Hoch, Isabel. 2008 cited in Cook attended the Barcaldine State (primary) school for 1906-8 and was then a boarder at
The Southport School , motto_translation = Let him who deserves the palm of victory bear it. , established = , type = Independent early learning, primary and secondary day and boarding school , denomination = Anglican , headmaster = Andrew Hawkins , ...
, where he was the dux in 1914 and received first honours in languages, Latin and English. Cook was permanently blinded in his left eye at age 17 after an accident whilst playing with an air rifle slug. He studied medicine at the
University of Sydney The University of Sydney (USYD), also known as Sydney University, or informally Sydney Uni, is a public research university located in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is the oldest university in Australia and is one of the country's si ...
, living at St Andrew's College, and he graduated with MB, Ch.M. in 1920. Later he conducted a national survey of leprosy as the Wandsworth scholar (1923–25), being awarded a
Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin language, Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a profes ...
in 1929, and Doctor of Public Health in 1931.


Medical practice and further studies

Cook served his residency at
Brisbane General Hospital The Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital (RBWH) is a tertiary public hospital located in Herston, a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It is operated by Metro North Health, part of the Queensland Health network. The hospital has 929 bed ...
. He briefly practised at Barcaldine with his father in 1919 to help deal with an epidemic of pneumonic influenza, then he worked in hospitals at Mount Morgan and Longreach before starting as a general practitioner in Hughenden. In 1921 Cook became the medical superintendent at Hugenden District Hospital and in 1922 the acting medical superintendent at Longreach District Hospital. He worked as a ship's medical officer to pay his way to London, where he attended the
London School of Tropical Medicine The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) is a public research university in Bloomsbury, central London, and a member institution of the University of London that specialises in public health and tropical medicine. The inst ...
, graduating with a Diploma of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in 1923 and winning a Wandsworth scholarship. Cook joined the Commonwealth Public Service in 1925. He worked at the Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine,
Townsville Townsville is a city on the north-eastern coast of Queensland, Australia. With a population of 180,820 as of June 2018, it is the largest settlement in North Queensland; it is unofficially considered its capital. Estimated resident population, 3 ...
.


Leprosy survey

As part of his MD studies, Cook conducted a major epidemiological study of
leprosy Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacteria ''Mycobacterium leprae'' or ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. This nerve damag ...
in Australia. He began his study at Sydney's Prince Henry Hospital and researched leprosy and granuloma venereum over three years. He published this report as his MD thesis ''The Epidemiology of Leprosy in Australia'' in 1927. The newly established Federal Health Council subsequently adopted leprosy as one of its concerns.


Northern Australia Appointment

He was appointed the Chief Medical Officer, Chief Health Officer,
Chief Protector of Aborigines The role of Protector of Aborigines was first established in South Australia in 1836. The role became established in other parts of Australia pursuant to a recommendation contained in the ''Report of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Abori ...
and Quarantine Officer for North Australia (then separate from Central Australia, later the
Northern Territory The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an states and territories of Australia, Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory ...
) on 1 March 1927. For the first six months he was the only medical practitioner in the state, and after that he focused on establishing a public health system. From 1929 to 1939, he established general hospitals at
Katherine Katherine, also spelled Catherine, and Catherina, other variations are feminine Given name, names. They are popular in Christian countries because of their derivation from the name of one of the first Christian saints, Catherine of Alexandria ...
,
Tennant Creek Tennant Creek ( wrm, Jurnkkurakurr) is town located in the Northern Territory of Australia. It is the seventh largest town in the Northern Territory, and is located on the Stuart Highway, just south of the intersection with the western termin ...
and
Alice Springs Alice Springs ( aer, Mparntwe) is the third-largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia. Known as Stuart until 31 August 1933, the name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Alice, Lady Todd (''née'' Al ...
, a hospital outside Darwin to treat
leprosy Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacteria ''Mycobacterium leprae'' or ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. This nerve damag ...
, a training school for nurses, a tuberculosis clinic and a medical benefit fund. He also commenced infant welfare services and founded the Nurses’ Board of North Australia in this time. In 1934 he joined forces with Dr Clyde Fenton to launch the Northern Territory Aerial Medical Service under the umbrella of the Australian Aerial Medical Service, which later became the (Royal) Flying Doctor Service. In 1930, he took leave to study
anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
and public health in Sydney.


"Half-caste" assimilation

Cecil Cook worked to assimilate "
half-caste Half-caste (an offensive term for the offspring of parents of different racial groups or cultures) is a term used for individuals of multiracial descent. It is derived from the term ''caste'', which comes from the Latin ''castus'', meaning pu ...
s", an old term used to describe a child who had an Aboriginal parent, usually the mother, and a white parent, and Aboriginals into "white society" through marriage licenses and employment opportunities. As Chief Protector of Aborigines, Cook was involved in marital affairs concerning "half-caste" women. With support from the
North Australian Workers' Union The North Australian Workers' Union (NAWU) was a trade union in the Northern Territory between 1927 and 1972. It was a publisher of a newsletter in Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin, the ''Northern Standard''. The union was involved in Aborigin ...
, he was able to prohibit their request for marriage if he deemed it necessary. Cook advocated for marriages between "half-caste" women and white men under his policy of “breeding out colour” and the assimilation of Aborigines into white society. He believed by the fifth or sixth generations "half-caste" children would not display any Aboriginal characteristics. During his time as Protector, 69 of these marriages took place. Cook also had the ability to deny full citizenship to "half-castes" when they turned 21. Cook wrote to the Head Administrator of the Northern Territory in 1933 about the idea of sterilising "half-castes". He wrote mentally defective "half-caste" children were an economic burden, and he could not see them being able to marry a white man and therefore their children would be costly to the government. Cook went on further to ask the Crown Law Officer if he had the power to give consent for a "half-caste's" sterilisation. Ultimately, Cook's request was denied.


Supporting Aboriginals

Cecil Cook worked with
pastoralists Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds. The animal s ...
to improve the working conditions for Aboriginal employees. In 1930 Aboriginal employees were given additional rations for relatives who were residents on pastoral properties and money was transferred into personal trust accounts. Cook helped to set up an Aboriginal Medical Benefit Fund, which ran from 1932 to 1933, whereby the employers of Aborigines would contribute funds. In his role as Chief Protector, Cook extended his duties to the criminal justice system. In a 1934 tribal spearing case an aboriginal man, Tucker, was sentenced to the death penalty but was let free of his charges after Cook fought for the case to be taken to the high court. Cook supported Aboriginals having the right to the ownership of their land. He suggested that mining companies at Tennant Creek in 1934 should pay royalties to the
Warumungu people The Warumungu (or Warramunga) are a group of Aboriginal Australians of the Northern Territory. Today, Warumungu are mainly concentrated in the region of Tennant Creek and Alice Springs. Language Their language is Warumungu, belonging to th ...
. This did not take place, but the miners were banned from entering settled areas.


The Bagot Aboriginal Reserve and the Kahlin Compound

Cecil Cook continued to advocate for the assimilation of "half-castes" and Aborigines into white society. In 1935 he requested the government erect residential areas for Aboriginals in a policy proposal that urged the government to integrate "half-caste" and Aboriginal society. The first institute, the
Bagot Aboriginal Reserve Bagot Community is an Australian Aboriginal, Aboriginal community in the Northern Territory of Australia located in Ludmilla, Northern Territory, Ludmilla, a northern suburb of the city of Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin. It was established ...
, was established in 1938 and was populated by Aboriginals from the Kahlin Compound. These areas were designed to help non tribal Aborigines assimilate into society by having proper accommodation, education, sanitation and trained skills for employment opportunities. Cook integrated 400 "half-castes", predominantly females, into the Kahlin Compound and other "half-caste" homes whilst he was Chief Protector of Aborigines. He advocated for the standard of education to be increased to the same quality found in the public schools in Northern Australia and he began to train some girls at the Kahlin Compound in nursing. Through his assimilation policy, Cook found employments for the female "half-caste" residents in private homes, as trainee nurses and in the Compound and other similar homes where they worked before becoming married.  For male "half-castes" he found 25 apprenticeships in the pastoral industry.


Film censorship

In 1929 the Australian Government began to censor films shown to Aborigines. Cook publicly supported Chief Censor Walter Cresswell O'Reilly of the Commonwealth Censorship Board. Cook had already restricted Aboriginal access to the cinemas to two nights a week and banned attending the circus altogether. In addition to their restricted access, Cook further organised for a permit and identification system for Aborigines and "half-castes" to present when attending the cinema. He successfully asked O’Rielly to increase the censorship to include films that displayed violence between a white person and a person of colour. Whilst he agreed with many of the banned films listed by the Commonwealth Censorship, Cook disapproved of films such as '
White Shadows in the South Seas ''White Shadows in the South Seas'' is a 1928 American silent film adventure romance directed by W.S. Van Dyke and starring Monte Blue and Raquel Torres. It was produced by Cosmopolitan Productions in association with MGM and distributed by MGM. ...
' by Cosmopolitan Pictures, which was censored due to it displaying a relationship between a white man and a coloured girl. There were also films that were not banned such as the 1929 ‘
The Pagan ''The Pagan'' is a 1929 silent/ part talking romantic drama filmed in Tahiti and produced and distributed by Metro Goldwyn Mayer. Both director W.S. Van Dyke and cinematographer Clyde De Vinna had previously visited Tahiti in 1928 to film ''Wh ...
’ depicting a heroic coloured man throwing a white villain overboard, which Cook believed should have been censored. Before the end of his role as Chief Protector Cook had begun plans for a cinema that featured only censored films near the Kahlin Compound but this was never completed.


Racial views and controversy

Growing public criticism of the exploitation and abuse of Aboriginal people led to passing the ''
Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 The ''Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897'', long name ''A Bill to make Provision for the better Protection and Care of the Aboriginal and Half-caste Inhabitants of the Colony, and to make more effectual Provision ...
'' in
Queensland ) , nickname = Sunshine State , image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , established_ ...
. This Act created the first official state control of
Indigenous Australians Indigenous Australians or Australian First Nations are people with familial heritage from, and membership in, the ethnic groups that lived in Australia before British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal peoples ...
in Queensland, including health. It authorised establishment of government reserves for Aboriginal people, and it led in 1904 to the appointment of a Chief Protector of Aborigines within the department of the Home Secretary. However its aims of protecting Aboriginal people were not realised: overcrowding, inadequate provisions and housing led to mortality rates which peaked at 13 per cent annually. While there were some improvements during the 1920s and 1930s, they remained triple the national average. However, there was also a widespread view among ruling white Australians at the time that aborigines were "unfit" to be counted among Australian society. Those of mixed race were considered especially difficult. The rise of the
eugenics Eugenics ( ; ) is a fringe set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter human gene pools by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or ...
movement and "
social Darwinism Social Darwinism refers to various theories and societal practices that purport to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology, economics and politics, and which were largely defined by scholars in We ...
" about this time resulted in a good deal of pseudo-scientific commentary about the place of people of "mixed blood". As a government official, Cook was placed in the position of needing to appease these forces. Cook irritated
Alice Springs Alice Springs ( aer, Mparntwe) is the third-largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia. Known as Stuart until 31 August 1933, the name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Alice, Lady Todd (''née'' Al ...
residents by urging them to allow Aboriginal patients in a proposed hospital and by allowing a
Catholic mission Missionary work of the Catholic Church has often been undertaken outside the geographically defined parishes and dioceses by religious orders who have people and material resources to spare, and some of which specialized in missions. Eventually, p ...
. He also sought to protect " full-bloods" from unauthorised visitors. However, he generally opposed church missions and favoured assimilation. Hence, when it came to Aboriginal people he argued for "breeding them out" and stated: He also instituted the "dog tag" system of fingerprinting and medical examination of Aboriginal people.


Involvement in public health

Cecil Cook joined the Army Medical Service in 1940. He served as RMO 2 Armoured Regiment and Lecturer in Military Hygiene in Sydney until 1941. From 1941 to 1943 Cook was a malaria pathologist for the 2/12 AGH, AIF. He was posted to a hospital in
Ceylon Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
where he worked 12-hour shifts focusing on treating patients with
malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...
. Cook studied different ways to treat malaria on 33 different patients at 12AGH and used his research to write a paper on treating the disease. In 1943 he became the Deputy Assistant Director of Hygiene with 2 Australian Corps where he gave lectures in a comprehensive training program for the troops at a base in Cairns. In this role he travelled to
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
where he treated an outbreak of
scrub typhus Scrub typhus or bush typhus is a form of typhus caused by the intracellular parasite ''Orientia tsutsugamushi'', a Gram-negative α-proteobacterium of family Rickettsiaceae first isolated and identified in 1930 in Japan. whilst also researching its cause and concluding it was the result of sleeping on the floor and neglecting to wear repellent clothing. Cook became the Deputy Assistant Director HQ of Hygiene for 1 Australian Corps in August 1944 where he was soon promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. In this role he inspected the hygiene standard at camp sites in Papua New Guinea. He was tasked with post-battle duties at
Tarakan Tarakan is an island and the largest city of the Indonesian province of North Kalimantan. The island city is located in northern Borneo, midway along the coast of the province. The city boundaries are co-extensive with the island (including a co ...
and British
North Borneo North Borneo (usually known as British North Borneo, also known as the State of North Borneo) was a British Protectorate, British protectorate in the northern part of the island of Borneo, which is present day Sabah. The territory of North Borneo ...
. Cook returned home in November 1945 and was treated in early 1946 for
dermatitis Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. The area of skin involved can v ...
on his hands and face.


Public health in Western Australia

In 1946 Cecil Cook became the Commissioner of Public Health in Western Australia and in 1947 the state's Principle Medical Officer. Through accepting the role of Western Australia's Commissioner of Public Health, Cook was able to join the
National Health and Medical Research Council The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is the main statutory authority of the Australian Government responsible for medical research. It was the eighth largest research funding body in the world in 2016, and NHMRC-funded rese ...
as well. Early on into his role, Cook published his correspondence to the Minister of Mines and Health in the West Australian newspaper to publicise the lack of trained nurses and medical funding in Western Australia. Cook formed the State Health Council in 1949 where he chaired meetings on health and medical issues. The formation of this council allowed Cook to correspond directly with the Health Minister. In his role as Commissioner of Public Health he elevated the role of full-time health inspectors,  increased the assessment of still births to help determine the causation, proposed a bill on the safe production, sale and distribution of milk that was later passed, and he wrote major reports on North-West Australia and Native Health.


Public health in NSW

After his work in Western Australia Cook moved to
Canberra Canberra ( ) is the capital city of Australia. Founded following the federation of the colonies of Australia as the seat of government for the new nation, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The ci ...
where he was closer to his family. In 1950 he spent 7 weeks inspecting the health in 53 Aboriginal communities. The survey and report he published of this inspection lead to the Native Welfare Conference in 1951. In 1950 he became the Liaison Officer and Covenor of the National Health and Medical Research Committee. He contributed to founding the
Australian Institute of Aboriginal studies The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), established as the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (AIAS) in 1964, is an independent Australian Government statutory authority. It is a collecting, ...
in 1962 and was part of the Human Biology Committee connected to it. Cook was a senior member of the Commonwealth Department of Health from 1920 until his retirement in 1962. In the year before his retirement, Cook fractured his tibia and both kneecaps in a car accident. In retirement Cook was still a member of the National Health and Medical Research Committee. In addition to this work he joined
Abbott Laboratories Abbott Laboratories is an American multinational medical devices and health care company with headquarters in Abbott Park, Illinois, United States. The company was founded by Chicago physician Wallace Calvin Abbott in 1888 to formulate known dr ...
in 1962 to help create Erythrocin to the standards of the Nation Health and Medical Research Committee. In 1963 the
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...
invited Cook to write a survey on the Public Health legislation in
Bangkok Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estima ...
and to inspect their administration and health services. Whilst there Cook assisted the Bangkok Municipal Council and recommended a development plan for public health.


Personal life

Cook married Jessie Winifred Miller on 4 March 1924. They had two sons, Murray and Wallie, who both attended the University of Sydney, and a daughter Robin. Jessie died in 1978. In 1978 Cook moved to
Burleigh Heads Burleigh Heads is a suburb in the City of Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. In the , Burleigh Heads had a population of 10,077 people. Geography Burleigh Head is a cape () jutting into the Coral Sea at the northern mouth of Tallebudgera C ...
shortly after his wife's death. In 1981 he broke his femur while crossing the road when a car hit him. By 1984 his sons moved him to a nursing home in
Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
.


Awards and recognition

* 1935 - CBE (Commander of the
Order of the British Empire The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the civil service. It was established ...
) * 1936 - Cilento medal


References


Further reading

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Cook, Cecil Evelyn Aufrere English emigrants to Australia 20th-century Australian medical doctors 1897 births 1985 deaths