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A ''caudillo'' ( , ; osp, cabdillo, from 
Also in HispanoAsia (Philippines) Emilio Aguinaldo titled as ''the Caudillo'' of "La Revolucion Pilipina", he ended up becoming the leader of two anti-colonial struggles: first against Spain, then against the US.
The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spain's General
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
, diminutive of ''caput'' "head") is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise definition of ''caudillo'', which is often used interchangeably with "warlord
A warlord is a person who exercises military, economic, and political control over a region in a country without a strong national government; largely because of coercive control over the armed forces. Warlords have existed throughout much of h ...
" and " strongman". The term is historically associated with Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
, and with Hispanic America after virtually all of the region won independence in the early nineteenth century.
The roots of ''caudillismo'' may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquest from the Moors
The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages.
Moors are not a distinc ...
. Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; ; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of w ...
and Francisco Pizarro exhibit characteristics of the ''caudillo'', being successful military leaders, having mutual reliance of the leader and their supporters, and rewarding them for their loyalty.Hamill, Hugh M. (1996) "Caudillismo, Caudillo" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Vol. 2, pp. 38–39. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown asserted its power and established a plethora of bureaucratic institutions that prevented personalist rule. Historian John Lynch argues that the rise of ''caudillos'' in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence
The Spanish American wars of independence (25 September 1808 – 29 September 1833; es, Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas) were numerous wars in Spanish America with the aim of political independence from Spanish rule during the early ...
. Those wars overthrew colonial rule and left a power vacuum in the early nineteenth century. ''Caudillos'' were very influential in the history of Spanish America and have a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era. Also in HispanoAsia (Philippines) Emilio Aguinaldo titled as ''the Caudillo'' of "La Revolucion Pilipina", he ended up becoming the leader of two anti-colonial struggles: first against Spain, then against the US.
The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spain's General Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco Bahamonde (; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who led the Nationalist forces in overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War and thereafter ruled over Spain from 193 ...
(1936–1975) proudly took the title as his own during and after his military overthrow of the Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931, after the deposition of King Alfonso XIII, and was dissolved on 1 ...
in the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlism, Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebeli ...
(1936–39), in parallel to the German and Italian equivalents of the same period: ''Führer
( ; , spelled or ''Fuhrer'' when the umlaut is not available) is a German word meaning "leader" or " guide". As a political title, it is strongly associated with the Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler.
Nazi Germany cultivated the ("leader princip ...
'' and '' Duce''. Spanish censors during his rule attacked publishers who applied the term to Hispanic American strongmen. ''Caudillos exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic vot ...
. Most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Hispanic America has had many more, the majority
A majority, also called a simple majority or absolute majority to distinguish it from related terms, is more than half of the total.Dictionary definitions of ''majority'' aMerriam-Webster
Since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of ''caudillos'' and the duration of their rule. The early nineteenth century is sometimes called "The Age of Caudillos", with
File:Portrait of Simón Bolívar by Arturo Michelena.jpg,
This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States as well as the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898, and it could be a launching area for attempts to reconquer its former colonies. The United States seized a huge area of territory Mexico claimed. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on the Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strong men of this early century were 
Liberal Francisco Morazán is considered one of the most important figures in Central American independence and unity, alongside conservative José Cecilio del Valle. Morazán was recognised as a visionary and great thinker, as he enacted many liberal reforms in the
File:Facundo Quiroga por García del Molino.jpg,
A major example of a modernizing caudillo of the late nineteenth century is General
File:Juan Perón 1946.jpg,
File:Pancho Ramírez.jpg, Francisco Ramírez, Entre Ríos
File:José Joaquín de Olmedo (por Manuel Salas Alzamora).jpg,
Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas (30 March 1793 – 14 March 1877), nicknamed "Restorer of the Laws", was an Argentine politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although ...
, dictator of Argentina, and his contemporary in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (; 21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876),Callcott, Wilfred H., "Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez De,''Handbook of Texas Online'' Retrieved 18 April 2017. usually known as Santa Ann ...
, dominating national politics. Brazil's transition to independence was the establishment of the Brazilian Empire
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil and (until 1828) Uruguay. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom ...
, which kept intact Brazil's geographical integrity and central authority. Weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered the continuation of ''caudillismo'' from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party
The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( es, Partido Revolucionario Institucional, ; abbr. PRI) is a political party in Mexico that was founded in 1929 and held uninterrupted power in the country for 71 years, from 1929 to 2000, first as the Nati ...
in 1929 effectively ended ''caudillismo''. Men characterized as ''caudillos'' have ruled in Cuba (Gerardo Machado
Gerardo Machado y Morales (28 September 1869 – 29 March 1939) was a general of the Cuban War of Independence and President of Cuba from 1925 to 1933.
Machado entered the presidency with widespread popularity and support from the major polit ...
, Fulgencio Batista
Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (; ; born Rubén Zaldívar, January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who served as the elected president of Cuba from 1940 to 1944 and as its U.S.-backed military dictator ...
, Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 20 ...
), Panama ( Omar Torrijos, Manuel Noriega
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (; February 11, 1934 – May 29, 2017) was a Panamanian dictator, politician and military officer who was the ''de facto'' ruler of Panama from 1983 to 1989. An authoritarian ruler who amassed a personal f ...
), the Dominican Republic (Desiderio Arias
Desiderio Arias Álvarez (1872–1931) was a notable Dominican soldier and ''caudillo'' who gained a significant following throughout the northern band of the Dominican Republic, especially in the Montecristi region. He was killed by Rafael Tr ...
, Cipriano Bencosme), Paraguay (Alfredo Stroessner
Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda (; 3 November 1912 – 16 August 2006) was a Paraguayan army officer and politician who served as President of Paraguay from 15 August 1954 to 3 February 1989.
Stroessner led a coup d'état on 4 May 1954 with t ...
), Argentina (Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón (, , ; 8 October 1895 – 1 July 1974) was an Argentine Army general and politician. After serving in several government positions, including Minister of Labour and Vice President of a military dictatorship, he was elected ...
and other military strongmen), and Chile (Augusto Pinochet
Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (, , , ; 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean general who ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990, first as the leader of the Military Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981, being declared President of ...
). ''Caudillos'' have been the subject of literature in Spanish America.Brushwood, John S. (1980) ''The Spanish American Novel: A Twentieth-Century Survey''. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Hispanic America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. The cause of their emergence in Spanish America is generally seen to be in the destruction of the Spanish colonial state structure after the wars of independence, and in the importance of leaders from the independence struggles for providing government in the post-independence period, when nation-states came into being. Historian John Lynch states that "Before 1810 the caudillo was unknown. … The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain." He gained in power by his success as a military leader. In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy, a ''caudillo'' could impose order, often by using violence himself to achieve it. His local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing material rewards reinforced his own position. ''Caudillos'' could also maintain their position by protecting the interests of regional elites. A local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to become a national ''caudillo'', taking control of the state. In this situation, ''caudillos'' could bestow patronage
Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists su ...
on a large retinue of clients, who in turn gave him their loyalty. In general, ''caudillos'' power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the popular classes, recruiting them into the power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves.
There were a few strongmen, whom historian E. Bradford Burns has named "folk ''caudillos''", who either rose from a humble background to protect the interests of indigenous groups or other rural marginalized groups, or strongly identified with those groups. In his analysis, these folk ''caudillos'' were in contrast to Europeanized elites who viewed the lower orders with contempt. He gives examples of Juan Facundo Quiroga, Martín Güemes and other Argentine ''caudillos'', most importantly Juan Manuel de Rosas, who were popular and populist
Populism refers to a range of political stances that emphasize the idea of "the people" and often juxtapose this group against " the elite". It is frequently associated with anti-establishment and anti-political sentiment. The term develop ...
''caudillos''. Burns attributes the urban elites' bafflement and their contempt for followers of these folk ''caudillos'' for much of the negative role assigned to ''caudillos''.
National ''caudillos'' often sought to legitimize their rule by holding titles of authority, such as "President of the Republic". If the constitution put formal limits on presidential power and term limits, ''caudillos'' could bend or break the rules to maintain power, a practice dubbed "'' continuismo''".
Ideologically, ''caudillos'' could be either liberal or conservative. Liberalism had an advantage in the post-independence period, drawing on ideas of the liberators, and created the institutional frameworks of the new nation-states via written constitutions. Free trade as an economic policy created market-oriented economies. The model that these nation-states often adopted was federalism
Federalism is a combined or compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments ( provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single ...
, keeping power in the component regions. Federalism, however, tended toward centrifugalism and fragmentation and were characterized by weak central governments. Conservative ''caudillos'' also emerged around 1830. New nation-states often rejected the institutions of the colonial era as legacies to be rejected, but the Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and traditional values remained strong in many regions, supported by elites seeking to maintain their power in the new order. Conservative ''caudillos'', supported by the Church and elites, moved to the creation of strong, central governments. In Argentina, Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas (30 March 1793 – 14 March 1877), nicknamed "Restorer of the Laws", was an Argentine politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although ...
and in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (; 21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876),Callcott, Wilfred H., "Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez De,''Handbook of Texas Online'' Retrieved 18 April 2017. usually known as Santa Ann ...
were exemplars of conservative authoritarian rule.
Independence era
TheSpanish American wars of independence
The Spanish American wars of independence (25 September 1808 – 29 September 1833; es, Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas) were numerous wars in Spanish America with the aim of political independence from Spanish rule during the early ...
of the early nineteenth century disrupted Spain and the Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
, when in 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader wh ...
invaded the Iberian Peninsula, overturned the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, and placed his brother Joseph
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the m ...
on the Spanish throne. Bonaparte is an example of a successful general who rose to national power during the massive disruption of the French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are conside ...
and was crowned emperor in 1804. For Spain and Spain's empire, their loss of legitimate monarch to a usurper unleashed forces that might well have remained latent. In Spanish America, the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms
The Bourbon Reforms ( es, Reformas Borbónicas) consisted of political and economic changes promulgated by the Spanish Crown under various kings of the House of Bourbon, since 1700, mainly in the 18th century. The beginning of the new Crown's ...
had systematically excluded American-born Spanish men or ''criollos'' from positions of political power, with the crown privileging Iberian-born officials and imposing economic policies that had deleterious effects in part of the empire. Previously, Spanish America had developed a level of local rule within the empire, with local elites being able to aspire to official positions and economic relations operated within long-established patterns. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain sparked Spanish American movements for autonomy and various regions set up juntas which operated in the name of the displaced Bourbon monarch. With the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814 following Napoleon's defeat and his reassertion of absolutist rule, the struggles in many parts of Spanish America became unequivocal wars of independence. Except for Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...
and Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
, Spanish America had achieved that goal by 1825.
Although there was the hope of some Spanish American leaders of independence that the political contours of regions would reconstitute the former viceroyalties
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning "k ...
, but with local autonomy. The Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
as an institution remained strong and the militaries that won victories against royalist forces. The state as an institution in most areas was weak. Conflicts over the form the new governments should take were rampant, and veterans of the wars of independence saw themselves as the leaders of the nation-states they had helped bring into being.
In the wake of the violence and political disruption, new nations were faced with widespread property destruction, disappearance of trade, and states that lacked political authority. The first few decades after independence saw the rise of strongmen with roots in the military. Spanish America had known no other type of regime than monarchy, and Mexico established one under royalist general-turned insurgent Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide (; 27 September 178319 July 1824), full name Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu and also known as Agustín of Mexico, was a Mexican army general and politician. During the Mexican War of Independence, he built ...
. Brazil's transition to independence was via the Brazilian Empire
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil and (until 1828) Uruguay. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom ...
, which kept its territory intact, and was ruled by a legitimate monarch. In Spanish America, new sovereign states grappled with the question of balancing a central authority, usually in the hands of the traditional elites, with some kind of representation of the new "citizenry" of the republics. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen, ''caudillos'', dominated. Dictoratorial powers were granted to some ''caudillos'', nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as "constitutional dictators".Smith, Peter H. (2005) ''Democracy in Latin America: Political Change in Comparative Perspective''. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–22.
Major leaders of the independence era
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
File:Retrato más canónico de José de San Martín.jpg, José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras (25 February 177817 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín () or '' the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru'', was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and centr ...
File:Martin Tovar y Tovar 12.JPG, Antonio José de Sucre
File:Francisco de Miranda by Tovar y Tovar.jpg, Francisco de Miranda
Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza (28 March 1750 – 14 July 1816), commonly known as Francisco de Miranda (), was a Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary. Although his own plans for the independence of the Spani ...
File:Miguel Hidalgo con estandarte.jpg, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
Don Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla y Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor (8 May 1753 – 30 July 1811), more commonly known as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or Miguel Hidalgo (), was a Catholic priest, leader of the Mexican W ...
File:Emperor Agustin I kroningsportret.JPG, Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide (; 27 September 178319 July 1824), full name Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu and also known as Agustín of Mexico, was a Mexican army general and politician. During the Mexican War of Independence, he built ...
File:Juan Manuel Blanes - Artigas en la Ciudadela.jpg, José Gervasio Artigas
Early nineteenth-century ''Caudillos''
There were a number of strongmen who went beyond raw struggles for power and its spoils and established "integrative dictatorships". These regimes attempted to curtail centrifugal forces, often termed "federalism", whereby regions or states of a nation-state had more autonomy, and instead to establish the hegemony of the central government. According to political scientistPeter H. Smith
Peter Hopkinson Smith (born January 17, 1940) is a scholar of Latin American history, politics, economics, and diplomacy. He is a distinguished Professor Emeritus of Political Science and the Simon Bolivar Professor of Latin American Studies at ...
, these include Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas (30 March 1793 – 14 March 1877), nicknamed "Restorer of the Laws", was an Argentine politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although ...
in Argentina; Diego Portales of Chile, whose system lasted nearly a century; and Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ( or ; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from 28 November 1876 to 6 Decem ...
of Mexico. Rosas and Díaz were military men, who continued to rely on armed forces to maintain themselves in power.
Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean
This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States as well as the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898, and it could be a launching area for attempts to reconquer its former colonies. The United States seized a huge area of territory Mexico claimed. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on the Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strong men of this early century were Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (; 21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876),Callcott, Wilfred H., "Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez De,''Handbook of Texas Online'' Retrieved 18 April 2017. usually known as Santa Ann ...
in Mexico and Rafael Carrera
José Rafael Carrera y Turcios (24 October 1814 – 14 April 1865) was the president of Guatemala from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 until his death in 1865, after being appointed President for life in 1854. During his military career and presiden ...
in Guatemala.
Liberal Francisco Morazán is considered one of the most important figures in Central American independence and unity, alongside conservative José Cecilio del Valle. Morazán was recognised as a visionary and great thinker, as he enacted many liberal reforms in the Federal Republic of Central America
The Federal Republic of Central America ( es, República Federal de Centroamérica), originally named the United Provinces of Central America ( es, Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), and sometimes simply called Central America, in it ...
, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of religion, also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing. Valle was a philosopher, politician, lawyer, and journalist who displayed a wide-ranging expertise in public administration management, and is recognised as a founding father of Central America.
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...
began its revolt against Spain in 1810, gaining independence in 1821. Political divisions in the post-independence period were labeled Federalist, seeking a weak central government and often associated with liberalism
Liberalism is a Political philosophy, political and moral philosophy based on the Individual rights, rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed, political equality and equality before the law."political rationalism, hostilit ...
, and Centralist, who sought a strong central state and defense of traditional institutional structures, particularly the Mexican Army and the Roman Catholic Church. Many regional strongmen were in the Federalist-Liberal camp, which supported local control and the continuation of their power. The quintessential Mexican ''caudillo'', who gained national power for decades, was Santa Anna, who was initially a Liberal but became a Conservative and sought strengthening of the central government. Following the Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known in the United States as the Mexican War and in Mexico as the (''United States intervention in Mexico''), was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. It followed the ...
, regional caudillos such as Juan Álvarez
Juan Nepomuceno Álvarez Hurtado de Luna, generally known as Juan Álvarez, (27 January 1790 – 21 August 1867) was a general, long-time caudillo (regional leader) in southern Mexico, and president of Mexico for two months in 1855, following ...
of the state of Guerrero and Santiago Vidaurri of Nuevo León
Nuevo León () is a state in the northeast region of Mexico. The state was named after the New Kingdom of León, an administrative territory from the Viceroyalty of New Spain, itself was named after the historic Spanish Kingdom of León. Wit ...
-Coahuila
Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza), is one of the 32 states of Mexico.
Coahuila borders the Mexican states of N ...
ousted Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla, bringing Liberals to power. General Juan Álvarez follows the pattern of the "folk ''caudillo'', whom historian François Chevalier François Chevalier may refer to:
* François Chevalier (cyclist) (1893–1983), a French cyclist
* François Chevalier (historian) (1914–2012), a French historian
*François Chevalier, a pseudonym of the composer Lee Orean Smith (1874–194 ...
calls a "good ''cacique'', hoprotected the mainly indigenous and mestizo peasants of Guerrero, who in turn gave him their loyalty. Álvarez briefly served as President of Mexico, returning to his home state, leaving ideological liberals to institute the era of La Reforma. During the era of the Mexican Reform and the French intervention in Mexico, there were a number of generals who had regional personal followings. Important figures whose local power had consequences nationally included Mariano Escobedo
Mariano Antonio Guadalupe Escobedo de la Peña (16 January 1826 – 22 May 1902) was a Mexican Army general and Governor of Nuevo León.
Early life
Mariano Escobedo was born in San Pablo de los Labradores (which is today known as Galeana), ...
in San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and i ...
; Ramón Corona
Ramón Corona (18 October 1837, Tuxcueca, Jalisco, Mexico – 11 November 1889, Guadalajara, Jalisco) was a liberal Mexican general and diplomat. He served with distinction during the Second French Intervention in Mexico and after the triumph ...
in Jalisco
Jalisco (, , ; Nahuatl: Xalixco), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco ; Nahuatl: Tlahtohcayotl Xalixco), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal ...
and Durango
Durango (), officially named Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Durango; Tepehuán: ''Korian''; Nahuatl: ''Tepēhuahcān''), is one of the 31 states which make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, situated in ...
, Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ( or ; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from 28 November 1876 to 6 Decem ...
in parts of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. There were other ''caudillos'' whose power was more local but still important, including Gerónimo Treviño and Francisco Narajo in Nuevo León, Servando Canales and Juan Cortina in Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas), is a state in the northeast region of Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entiti ...
, Florencio Antillón in Guanajuato, Ignacio Pesqueira in Sonora
Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is divided into 72 municipalities; the ...
, Luis Terrazas in Chihuahua Chihuahua may refer to:
Places
* Chihuahua (state), a Mexican state
**Chihuahua (dog), a breed of dog named after the state
**Chihuahua cheese, a type of cheese originating in the state
**Chihuahua City, the capital city of the state
**Chihuahua Mu ...
, and Manuel Lozada
Manuel Lozada, nicknamed "The Tiger of Álica", was a regional ''caudillo'' based in the region of Tepic, Mexico. He was born in 1828 in the Tepic Territory, Mexico and died on July 19, 1873, in Loma de los Metates, Nayarit.
During the Second Fr ...
in Tepic
Tepic () is the capital and largest city of the western Mexican state of Nayarit, as well as the seat of the Tepic Municipality.
Located in the central part of the state, it stands at an altitude of above sea level, on the banks of the Rí ...
. Following the defeat of the French in 1867, the government of Benito Juárez and his successor following his death, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada faced opponents who objected to their increasingly Centralist administrations. Those opponents gravitated to supporting Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ( or ; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from 28 November 1876 to 6 Decem ...
, a military hero of the French intervention, who challenged Juárez and Lerdo by attempting rebellions, the second of which, the Plan of Tuxtepec, was successful in 1876. Juárez and Lerdo removed some ''caudillos'' from office, but this prompted them to rebel. These included Trinidad García de la Cadena in Zacatecas, Luis Mier y Terán in Veracruz
Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...
, Juan Haro in Tampico, Juan N. Méndez in Puebla, Vicente Jiménez in Guerrero, and Juan Cortina in Matamoros. Their opposition to Lerdo brought them together. "That they slowly gathered around Porfirio Díaz is the story of the rise of Porfirian Mexico."
Bolivarian republics: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
, the foremost leader of independence in Spanish America, attempted to recreate the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the nation of Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia (, "Great Colombia"), or Greater Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia ( Spanish: ''República de Colombia''), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to ...
. As with other areas of Spanish America, centrifugal forces were at work so that despite the leadership of Bolívar, the country fragmented into separate nation-states. Bolivar saw the need for political stability, which could be put into effect with a president-for-life and the power to name his successor. In 1828 his supporters called on him to assume dictatorial powers and "save the republic". However, the political turmoil continued and Bolívar stepped down in 1830, going into self-imposed exile and dying shortly thereafter. "He is revered as the one person who made the greatest contribution to Spanish American independence" and admired by both the political Left, for opposing slavery and distrust of the U.S., and the Right, which admires his authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic voti ...
.
Veterans of the wars of independence assumed the leadership of the newly created nation-states, each with a new constitution. Despite constitutions and ideological labels of Liberal and Conservative, personalist and opportunistic leaders dominated the early nineteenth century. As with Mexico and Central America, the political turmoil and penury of the governments of the Bolivarian republics prevented foreign investors from risking their capital there.
One caudillo who was remarkably progressive for his time was Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
’s Manuel Isidoro Belzu
Manuel Isidoro Belzu Humérez (4 April 1808 – 27 March 1865) was a Bolivian military officer and statesman who served as the 11th president of Bolivia from 1848 to 1855. Under his presidency, the current national anthem of Bolivia and flag ...
. He served as Bolivia's fourteenth president from 1848 until 1855. The former president, Jose Miguel de Velasco, executed a coup for the presidency in 1848, promising the position of Minister of War to Belzu. Belzu, however, seized power for himself once the coup was completed, and cemented his position as president by quashing a counter-coup by Velasco. During his presidency, Belzu instituted several reforms to the country's economy in an effort to redistribute wealth more equitably. He rewarded the work of the poor and dispossessed. Like Paraguay
Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to t ...
’s Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, Belzu chose to enact the aforementioned welfare programs because the idea of communalism was more in tune with the traditional values of native populations than the emphasis on private property that other caudillos embraced. Belzu was also known for his nationalization of the country’s profitable mining industry – he enacted protectionist policies to reserve Bolivian resources for Bolivian use. Thus, provoking the ire of influential British as well as Peruvian and Chilean shipping and mining interests. Many of Belzu’s policies won him favor among the long-downtrodden indigenous peoples of Bolivia, but this came at the cost of enraging wealthy Creole Bolivians as well as foreign countries like Britain that sought to use resources from Bolivian mines. Belzu even took steps to legitimize his leadership, and was at one point democratically elected. Despite his popularity in many sectors, Belzu had many powerful enemies, which was shown by him surviving 40 assassination attempts. His enemies wanted to destroy the state-run projects that helped nationalist program but likewise improved the public sphere on which the country's poor were reliant. However, the despotism that is so rife among the caudillos also found a home with Belzu – from the early 1850s until his abdication of power in 1855, he is said to have ruled despotically, making himself very wealthy in the process. Belzu considered to come back to presidency in 1861, however, he was gunned down by one of his rivals by the time he tried to run for presidency again. He was unable to leave a legacy and his populist programs died with him. After Bolivia's independence, Bolivia lost half of its territory to neighboring countries including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil through the war and agreements reached under the threat of invasion.
Southern Cone: Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay
In contrast to most of Spanish America, post-independence Chile experienced political stability under the authoritarian rule of Conservatives, backed by the landowning class. Although he never sought the presidency, cabinet minister Diego Portales (1793–1837) is credited with creating a strong, centralized regime that lasted 30 years. In general Chile prospered with an export-oriented economy based on agriculture and mining, an exception to most of Spanish American regimes. In the former viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, political instability and violence were more typical of the era. In Argentina,Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas (30 March 1793 – 14 March 1877), nicknamed "Restorer of the Laws", was an Argentine politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although ...
(r. 1829–1852) dominated the Argentine confederation. He came from a wealthy landowning family, but also acquired large tracts of land in Buenos Aires province. Rosas despised "the principles of political democracy and liberty ndprovided order in a region that had known near-anarchy since independence." This order came at the cost of severe repression of his enemies, using a variety of armed followers, most well known being the Mazorca. He had a popular following among the lower classes in Buenos Aires province.
During his two-decade reign, Rosas was able to rise to power and create an empire. He became the model for what a caudillo was supposed to be. He used his military experience to gain support from gauchos and estancias to create an army that would challenge the leadership of Argentina. After his rise to power using the rural workers, he changed his system in favor of using the military. He attempted to impose a ban on imported goods to help and win the support of the artisans in Argentina, but he failed. He was forced to lift the ban on certain imports, like textiles, which opened a trade with Great Britain. Through his power over the imports and exports, the military, the police, and even the legislative branch of government, Rosas created a monopoly that would ensure his remaining in power for over two decades; however there didn't ensure a peaceful twenty years. By the 1850s, Rosas was under attack by the very people who had helped him gain power. He was driven out of power and eventually ended up in Great Britain where he died in 1877.
Uruguay attained independence of Brazil and Argentina and was ruled by Fructuoso Rivera
José Fructuoso Rivera y Toscana (17 October 1784 – 13 January 1854) was a Uruguayan general and patriot who fought for the liberation of Banda Oriental from Brazilian rule, twice served as Uruguay's President and was one of the instigators ...
. In Paraguay, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (r. 1814–1840) was Supreme Dictator of the Republic, maintaining the landlocked country's independence from Argentina and from foreign powers. Sealed off from outside trade, Paraguay developed economic self-sufficiency under Francia. He based society on communal properties, rather than centralized authoritarianism, attempting to revert to the methods of the communal Indian society that existed previously in Paraguay.Meade, Teresa A. (2016) “Populist Caudillismo: Paraguay and Bolivia.” History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, Wiley Blackwell, p. 93. After independence the state gained control of the land which was once under control of the Church and the Spanish state. Francia created state ranches and rented out land for the use of citizens who were able to pay a fee. Francia's repressive measures included crushing the power of the elite American-born Spaniards and curbing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Francia allowed for religious freedom and abolished the tithe. He actively encouraged miscegenation. He has been a controversial figure in Hispanic American history, in an effort to aid the poor. Many modern historians credit him with bringing stability to Paraguay, preserving independence, and "bequeathing to his successors an egalitarian, homogeneous nation." However, because of his crackdown on the wealthy elite and the subsequent weakening of their power, he was accused of anti-clericalism. Nevertheless, Paraguay prospered under Francia in terms of economics and trade through a trade route with Buenos Aires, which was opposed by the wealthy Argentinian elites. "Sometimes counted among the dictators of the era, contemporary history has viewed Francia as an honest, populist leader who promoted sovereign economic prosperity in a war-torn Paraguay."
Gallery
Facundo Quiroga
Juan Facundo Quiroga (November 27, 1788 – February 16, 1835) was an Argentine caudillo (military strongman) who supported federalism at the time when the country was still in formation.
Early years
Quiroga was born in San Antonio, La R ...
, Argentina
File:Manuel Isidoro Belzu. Villavicencio, Antonio. c. 1848, Museo de Charcas, Sucre.png, Manuel Isidoro Belzu
Manuel Isidoro Belzu Humérez (4 April 1808 – 27 March 1865) was a Bolivian military officer and statesman who served as the 11th president of Bolivia from 1848 to 1855. Under his presidency, the current national anthem of Bolivia and flag ...
, Bolivia
File:DPortales.JPG, Diego Portales, Chile
File:Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera.jpg, Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera, Colombia
File:Mora Porras, Juan Rafael -pteCR por Povedano MHJS f2.jpg, Juan Rafael Mora Porras, Costa Rica
File:Tuto Báez - Retrato del General Pedro Santana.jpg, Pedro Santana
Pedro Santana y Familias, 1st Marquess of Las Carreras (June 29, 1801June 14, 1864) was a Dominican military commander and royalist politician who served as the president of the junta that had established the First Dominican Republic, a pre ...
, Dominican Republic
File:Juan Jose Flores.jpg, Juan José Flores, Ecuador
File:Manuel José Arce 1.jpg, Manuel José Arce
Manuel José Arce y Fagoaga (1 January 1787 – 14 December 1847) was a decorated salvadoran General and president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1825 to 1829, followed by Francisco Morazán.
Background
Manuel José Arce was ...
, El Salvador
File:Carrerayturcios 2014-06-22 09-46.jpg, Rafael Carrera
José Rafael Carrera y Turcios (24 October 1814 – 14 April 1865) was the president of Guatemala from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 until his death in 1865, after being appointed President for life in 1854. During his military career and presiden ...
, Guatemala
File:JTCabanas.jpg, José Trinidad Cabañas
José Trinidad Cabañas Fiallos (9 June 1805– 8 January 1871) was a liberal Honduran military general and politician who served as President of Honduras on two separate occasions: From 1 March to 6 July 1852. And 31 December 1853 to 6 Jun ...
, Honduras
File:Morelos 1811.jpg, José María Morelos
José María Teclo Morelos Pérez y Pavón () (30 September 1765 – 22 December 1815) was a Mexican Catholic priest, statesman and military leader who led the Mexican War of Independence movement, assuming its leadership after the execution of ...
, Mexico
File:Cleto Ordóñez.png, José Anacleto Ordóñez
José Anacleto Ordóñez Bermúdez (1778–1839), also known as Cleto Ordóñez, and nicknamed "''El tuerto Ordóñez''" by his detractors was a liberal Nicaraguan soldier, politician and prominent Central American unionist who served as ''de ...
, Nicaragua
File:Dr. José Gaspar de Francia.jpg, Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
Gaspar is a given and/or surname of French, German, Portuguese, and Spanish origin, cognate to Casper (given name) or Casper (surname).
It is a name of biblical origin, per Saint Gaspar, one of the wise men mentioned in the Bible.
Notable p ...
, Paraguay
File:Agustin Gamarra.jpg, Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia (August 27, 1785 – November 18, 1841) was a Peruvian soldier and politician, who served as the 4th and 7th President of Peru.
Gamarra was a Mestizo, being of mixed Spanish and Quechua descent.Larned, Smith, Seymour, Sh ...
, Peru
File:Juan Manuel Blanes - Retrato del General Fructuoso Rivera.png, Fructuoso Rivera
José Fructuoso Rivera y Toscana (17 October 1784 – 13 January 1854) was a Uruguayan general and patriot who fought for the liberation of Banda Oriental from Brazilian rule, twice served as Uruguay's President and was one of the instigators ...
, Uruguay
File:José Antonio Páez by Tovar y Tovar.jpg, José Antonio Páez
José Antonio Páez Herrera (; 13 June 1790 – 6 May 1873) was a Venezuelan leader who fought against the Spanish Crown for Simón Bolívar during the Venezuelan War of Independence. He later led Venezuela's independence from Gran Colombia. ...
, Venezuela
''Caudillos'' in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries
In the late nineteenth century, regimes in Spanish America were more stable and often less dominated by military men. Foreign investors, particularly the British, began building infrastructure in countries of greatest interest to the UK's economic needs. Such projects included railways, telegraph lines, and port facilities, which cut transportation time and costs and sped up communications. Stable political regimes that could ensure the security of foreign investments, facilitate extraction of resources, and production of agricultural crops and animals were the necessary structures. Industrialization also took hold in a few countries (Mexico, Argentina, Colombia) to produce consumer goods locally. In general, foreign governments and entrepreneurs had no interest in directly administering countries of Hispanic America in a formal colonial arrangement so long as their interests could be nurtured by modernizing national governments, often seen as neocolonialism. There are a number of examples of '' continuismo'' in Hispanic America whereby presidents continue in office beyond the legal term limits, with constitutional revision, plebiscites, and the creation of family dynasties, such as the Somoza family in Nicaragua.Mexico
A major example of a modernizing caudillo of the late nineteenth century is General Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ( or ; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from 28 November 1876 to 6 Decem ...
(r. 1876–1911), whose period of control is known as the Porfiriato. His slogan was “order and progress,” which was enforced by armed men controlled by the president, the '' Rurales''. Díaz was averse to being dependent on the Mexican army, since as a general and leader of a coup d'état himself, he knew their potential for intervening in national politics. Díaz coopted or crushed regional opposition to his regime, creating a political machine to forward his vision of modern Mexico. Desirous of economic development that necessitated foreign investment, Díaz sought capital and expertise from European powers (Britain, France, and Germany) to offset the closer power of the United States. Although elections were held in Mexico at regular intervals, they were by nature not democratic. The huge rural, illiterate, and mostly indigenous populations were more to be feared by the government than as a source for regime support. When Díaz failed to find a political solution to his succession, the Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
erupted after the fraudulent 1910 general election.
Diaz came to power by a coup under the Plan of Tuxtepec and became president of Mexico 1876–1880, succeeded by his military and political ''compadre'' Manuel González (1880–1884) and returned to the presidency until he was overthrown in 1911 in the Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
.
During that decade-long civil war, a number of regional caudillos arose. Pascual Orozco helped oust Díaz at the early stage of the Revolution, but then turned against Francisco I. Madero, who had been elected to the presidency in 1911. Pancho Villa
Francisco "Pancho" Villa (, Orozco rebelled in March 1912, both for Madero's continuing failure to enact land reform and because he felt insufficiently rewarded for his role in bringing the new president to power. At the request of Madero's c ...
also helped oust Díaz, supported Madero, and following his murder in 1913, became a general in the Constitutionalist Army commanded by civilian Venustiano Carranza
José Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (; 29 December 1859 – 21 May 1920) was a Mexican wealthy land owner and politician who was Governor of Coahuila when the constitutionally elected president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown in a February ...
. Emiliano Zapata, peasant leader from the state of Morelos, opposed to Díaz and every subsequent Mexican government until his murder in 1919 by agents of Carranza. Álvaro Obregón emerged as another brilliant general from northern Mexico, defeating Villa's Division of the North in 1915 after Villa had broken with Carranza. Obregón and fellow Sonoran generals Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles (25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a general in the Mexican Revolution and a Sonoran politician, serving as President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928.
The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist ...
and Adolfo de la Huerta overthrew Carranza in 1920 under the Plan of Agua Prieta
The Plan of Agua Prieta (Spanish: ''Plan de Agua Prieta)'' was a manifesto, or plan, that articulated the reasons for rebellion against the government of Venustiano Carranza. Three revolutionary generals from Sonora, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco E ...
, with the presidency in the 1920s going in turn from de la Huerta, to Obregón, to Calles, and back to Obregón. During Calles's presidency (1924–28), he stringently enforced the anticlerical laws of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, leading to the Cristero War, a failed major uprising under the leadership of some regional caudillos, including Saturnino Cedillo
Saturnino Cedillo Martínez (November 29, 1890 in Ciudad del Maíz, San Luis Potosí - January 11, 1939 in Sierra Ventana, San Luis Potosí) was a Mexican politician who participated in the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War. He was governo ...
of San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and i ...
. Obregón was elected again in 1928, but was assassinated before he could again resume the presidency. In 1929, Plutarco Elías Calles founded a political party, then known as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), and became the "Jefe Máximo" (''maximum chief''), being the power behind the presidency in a period known as the Maximato (1928–1934); PNR's iteration as the Institutional Revolutionary Party
The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( es, Partido Revolucionario Institucional, ; abbr. PRI) is a political party in Mexico that was founded in 1929 and held uninterrupted power in the country for 71 years, from 1929 to 2000, first as the Nati ...
dominated Mexican politics until 2000 and functioned as a brake on the personalist power of regional caudillos in Mexico.
Central America
With the improvement of transportation, tropical products such as coffee and bananas could be transported to a growing consumer market in the United States. In Guatemala Justo Rufino Barrios ruled as a Liberal autocrat and expanded coffee cultivation. In El Salvador, Santiago González took power in 1871 and established Liberal dominance until 1944. In Nicaragua José Santos Zelaya ousted Conservatives in 1893 and embarked on agricultural exports and infrastructure projects. He later became hostile to the United States, which helped oust him in 1909. With the incorporation of theUnited Fruit Company
The United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) was an American multinational corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas) grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899 fro ...
in the U.S. in 1899, the company's presence in Hispanic America expanded especially in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Colombia, and Cuba.
In twentieth-century Nicaragua, the capitalist strongman Anastasio Somoza García held the presidential office and then was succeeded by his son Anastasio Somoza Debayle
Anastasio "Tachito" Somoza Debayle (; 5 December 1925 – 17 September 1980) was the President of Nicaragua from 1 May 1967 to 1 May 1972 and from 1 December 1974 to 17 July 1979. As head of the National Guard, he was ''de facto'' ruler of t ...
, establishing a political dynasty. A notoriously brutal dictatorship, it was supported by the United States as a means to maintain political stability in the region and shore up U.S. business interests. The Somoza dynasty was overthrown in the Sandinista Revolution in 1979.
Caribbean
Cuba was a colony of Spain until theSpanish–American War
, partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence
, image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg
, image_size = 300px
, caption = (clock ...
(1898), so that caudillos arose to power only in the twentieth century. Gerardo Machado
Gerardo Machado y Morales (28 September 1869 – 29 March 1939) was a general of the Cuban War of Independence and President of Cuba from 1925 to 1933.
Machado entered the presidency with widespread popularity and support from the major polit ...
and Fulgencio Batista
Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (; ; born Rubén Zaldívar, January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who served as the elected president of Cuba from 1940 to 1944 and as its U.S.-backed military dictator ...
had their roots in the Cuban military. Machado ran for re-election in 1928 despite a promise to only serve one term as president, and became increasingly repressive against his critics, many who were killed by the police. Machado was overthrown in 1933 by the Sergeants' Revolt
The Cuban Revolution of 1933 ( es, Revolución cubana de 1933), also called the Revolt of the Sergeants, was a coup d'état that occurred in Cuba in September 1933. It began as a revolt of sergeants and enlisted men in the military, who soon allie ...
that saw Batista rise to prominence. Batista appointed himself head of the armed forces, ruled through puppet presidents and was elected president in 1940. After failing to be re-elected in 1952, Batista launched a coup, installing a right-wing dictatorship where American business interests, landowners, and the Cuban elite were favored. Under Batista, hundreds to 4,000 Cubans were killed by the army, police, Rural Guard and anti-communist secret police, with many more fleeing into exile.Wickham-Crowley, Timothy P. (1990). Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory. Armonk and London: M.E. Sharpe. P. 63 "Estimates of hundreds or perhaps about a thousand deaths due to Batista's terror are also supported by comments made by Fidel Castro and other Batista critics during the war itself."Guerra, Lillian (2012). Visions of Power in Cuba: Revolution, Redemption, and Resistance, 1959–1971. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 42 "The likely total was probably closer to three to four thousand." Batista's right-wing dictatorship was overthrown in 1959 by Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 20 ...
, Raúl Castro
Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (; ; born 3 June 1931) is a retired Cuban politician and general who served as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, the most senior position in the one-party communist state, from 2011 to 2021, succee ...
, Che Guevara
Ernesto Che Guevara (; 14 June 1928The date of birth recorded on /upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Ernesto_Guevara_Acta_de_Nacimiento.jpg his birth certificatewas 14 June 1928, although one tertiary source, (Julia Constenla, quoted ...
, Camilo Cienfuegos
Camilo Cienfuegos Gorriarán (; 6 February 1932 – 28 October 1959) was a Cuban revolutionary born in Havana. Along with Che Guevara, Fidel Castro, Juan Almeida Bosque, and Raúl Castro, he was a member of the 1956 '' Granma'' expedition ...
, and their left-wing nationalist 26th of July Movement
The 26th of July Movement ( es, Movimiento 26 de Julio; M-26-7) was a Cuban vanguard revolutionary organization and later a political party led by Fidel Castro. The movement's name commemorates its 26 July 1953 attack on the army barracks on San ...
. After worsening relations with the US culminated in the Bay of Pigs Invasion
The Bay of Pigs Invasion (, sometimes called ''Invasión de Playa Girón'' or ''Batalla de Playa Girón'' after the Playa Girón) was a failed military landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in 1961 by Cuban exiles, covertly fin ...
in 1961, Fidel declared himself a communist and established an authoritarian Marxist-Leninist state. Fidel's brother Raúl succeeded as leader in 2011 when Fidel was too ill to remain in power. This kind of dynastic succession is an example of continuismo.
In the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo
Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( , ; 24 October 189130 May 1961), nicknamed ''El Jefe'' (, "The Chief" or "The Boss"), was a Dominican dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from February 1930 until his assassination in May 1961. He ser ...
came to power in 1930, ruling for over 31 years as an unchallenged military strongmen, either by himself or through puppet presidents. Trujillo established a personality cult, extended his policy of state terrorism into neighboring countries, the US and Central America, and ordered the Parsley massacre where tens of thousands of Haitians were killed by Dominican troops.
Bolivarian republics
Southern Cone
Argentina has experienced a long history of caudillismo. In the twentieth century,Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón (, , ; 8 October 1895 – 1 July 1974) was an Argentine Army general and politician. After serving in several government positions, including Minister of Labour and Vice President of a military dictatorship, he was elected ...
and his dynamic and charismatic wife, Evita Perón, held power. One historian has speculated whether Evita Perón can be considered a caudilla. With Eva's death in 1952 from cancer, Perón fell from power and went into exile. He returned to power with his third wife Isabel Perón
Isabel Martínez de Perón (, born María Estela Martínez Cartas, 4 February 1931), also known as Isabelita, is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 1974 to 1976. She was one of the first female republican heads ...
, whom he made vice president. With his death, she succeeded to power but was later overthrown by the Argentine military.
Today, the term caudillo is still used in Argentina as a negative term to describe very powerful provincial governors, who might perpetuate themselves in power for decades and engage in corruption, particularly misappropriation of public funds. They also tend to practice nepotism. Some of the most powerful governors who have been called caudillos are Gildo Insfran, governor of Formosa from 1995 to the present, and Carlos Juárez in Santiago del Estero.
In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chile had a significant period of civilian, constitutional rule. With the election of socialist Salvador Allende, the Chilean Army with the support of the U.S. government overthrew him by coup on September 11, 1973, and General Augusto Pinochet
Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (, , , ; 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean general who ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990, first as the leader of the Military Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981, being declared President of ...
assumed power. Pinochet attempted to remain in power via constitutional means and staged a plebiscite in 1988 to get popular support. The plebiscite failed to provide a mandate and Chile entered a period of transition to democracy.
Paraguay was ruled by General Alfredo Stroessner
Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda (; 3 November 1912 – 16 August 2006) was a Paraguayan army officer and politician who served as President of Paraguay from 15 August 1954 to 3 February 1989.
Stroessner led a coup d'état on 4 May 1954 with t ...
from 1954 to 1989 and was ousted by military coup in 1989.
Gallery
Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón (, , ; 8 October 1895 – 1 July 1974) was an Argentine Army general and politician. After serving in several government positions, including Minister of Labour and Vice President of a military dictatorship, he was elected ...
, Argentina
File:Óscar Únzaga de la Vega.jpg, Óscar Únzaga
Óscar Únzaga de la Vega (19 April 1916 – 19 April 1959) was a Bolivian political figure and rebel. Most significantly, he founded the Bolivian Socialist Falange (FSB) movement in 1937, and ran for President in the 1956 elections, when his ...
, Bolivia
File:Augusto Pinochet.png, Augusto Pinochet
Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (, , , ; 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean general who ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990, first as the leader of the Military Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981, being declared President of ...
, Chile
File:Uribe en 1900 (Cropped).jpg, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Colombia
File:José Figueres Ferrer cropped.jpg, José Figueres Ferrer
José María Hipólito Figueres Ferrer (25 September 1906 – 8 June 1990) served as President of Costa Rica on three occasions: 1948–1949, 1953–1958 and 1970–1974. During his first term in office he abolished the country's army, nation ...
, Costa Rica
File:Fidel Castro - MATS Terminal Washington 1959 (cropped).png, Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 20 ...
, Cuba
File:Trujillo 1952.jpg, Rafael Trujillo
Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( , ; 24 October 189130 May 1961), nicknamed ''El Jefe'' (, "The Chief" or "The Boss"), was a Dominican dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from February 1930 until his assassination in May 1961. He ser ...
, Dominican Republic
File:Eloy Alfaro asambleas (cropped).jpg, Eloy Alfaro, Ecuador
File:Hernandez Martinez.jpg, Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, El Salvador
File:Presidente Jorge Ubico Castañeda.png, Jorge Ubico, Guatemala
File:Dictador General Tiburcio Carias Andino.jpg, Tiburcio Carías Andino, Honduras
File:Zapataandvilla.png, Pancho Villa
Francisco "Pancho" Villa (, Orozco rebelled in March 1912, both for Madero's continuing failure to enact land reform and because he felt insufficiently rewarded for his role in bringing the new president to power. At the request of Madero's c ...
(left) & Emiliano Zapata. Mexico
File:Somoza 1952 (centrée).jpg, Anastasio Somoza García, Nicaragua
File:Omar Torrijos 1978 (Black and White).jpg, Omar Torrijos, Panama
File:Lopez1870.jpg, Francisco Solano López, Paraguay
File:Óscar R. Benavides 1933.jpg, Óscar Benavides, Peru
File:José Batlle y Ordóñez.jpg, José Batlle y Ordóñez, Uruguay
File:Cipriano Castro 7.jpg, Cipriano Castro
José Cipriano Castro Ruiz (12 October 1858 – 4 December 1924) was a high-ranking member of the Venezuelan military, politician and the president of Venezuela from 1899 to 1908. He was the first man from the Andes to rule the country, and was ...
, Venezuela
''Caudillos'' of former sovereign states
Republic of Entre Ríos
The Republic of Entre Ríos was a short-lived state comprising what are today the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes. It was founded on September 29th, 1820 by General Francisco Ramírez (who styled himself ''jefe supremo'', supreme chief) and lasted only one year. In spite of the "Republic" in its title, Ramirez never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to themonarchist
Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalis ...
and unitarian ideas that back then permeated Buenos Aires' politics. Ramírez was killed on July 10th, 1821 after an unsuccessful attempt at saving his wife from captivity, and on September 28th, the republic was dissolved.
Free Province of Guayaquil
TheFree Province of Guayaquil
The Free Province of Guayaquil was a South American state that emerged between 1820 and 1822 with the independence of the province of Guayaquil from the Spanish monarchy. The free province had a provisional government and constitution until its ...
was the predecessor state of Ecuador that emerged as a result of the Revolution of October 9, led mainly by José Joaquín de Olmedo
José Joaquín de Olmedo y Maruri (20 March 1780 – 19 February 1847) was President of Ecuador from 6 March 1845 to 8 December 1845. A patriot and poet, he was the son of the Spanish Captain Don Miguel de Olmedo y Troyano and the Guayaquilean An ...
. The state lasted until July 31st, 1822, when, after the Guayaquil Conference, Simón Bolívar staged a coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
, which forcefully annexed the state to Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia (, "Great Colombia"), or Greater Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia ( Spanish: ''República de Colombia''), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to ...
. Its successor was the Guayaquil Department, which later would gain independence as Ecuador on May 13th, 1830, under Juan José Flores.
Independent Republic of Spanish Haiti
The Independent Republic of Spanish Haiti was the state that resulted from the defeat of Spanish royalists fromSanto Domingo
, total_type = Total
, population_density_km2 = auto
, timezone = AST (UTC −4)
, area_code_type = Area codes
, area_code = 809, 829, 849
, postal_code_type = Postal codes
, postal_code = 10100–10699 ( Distrito Nacional)
, webs ...
on November 9th, 1821, led by General José Núñez de Cáceres
José Núñez de Cáceres y Albor (March 14, 1772 – September 11, 1846) was a Dominican politician and writer. He is known for being the leader of the independence movement against Spain in 1821 and the only president of the short-lived Repu ...
. Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer had been preparing for a rumored invasion by French and Spanish troops, so when the independence of Spanish Haiti was declared on December 1st, Boyer began do send emissaries to the central and northern parts of the republic to promote its annexation, and some cities began to fly the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas. Originally the government was in favour of joining Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia (, "Great Colombia"), or Greater Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia ( Spanish: ''República de Colombia''), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to ...
, but some officials were persuaded into uniting with Haiti, which idea was more liked by the populous. By 1822 many cities had already agreed to annexation by Haiti, and on February 9th, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo
, total_type = Total
, population_density_km2 = auto
, timezone = AST (UTC −4)
, area_code_type = Area codes
, area_code = 809, 829, 849
, postal_code_type = Postal codes
, postal_code = 10100–10699 ( Distrito Nacional)
, webs ...
, where it's full annexation was recognised and the republic was dissolved.
State of Los Altos
The State of Los Altos was a secessionist state founded mostly by Guatemalan liberals, seeking independence from the conservative regime in Guatemala, led byMariano Rivera Paz
Mariano Rivera Paz (24 December 1804 – 26 February 1849) was Head of State of Guatemala and its first president.
Biography
Mariano Rivera Paz was born in Guatemala City and studied law in the Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlo ...
, and later Rafael Carrera
José Rafael Carrera y Turcios (24 October 1814 – 14 April 1865) was the president of Guatemala from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 until his death in 1865, after being appointed President for life in 1854. During his military career and presiden ...
. The state was supported by the Federal Republic of Central America
The Federal Republic of Central America ( es, República Federal de Centroamérica), originally named the United Provinces of Central America ( es, Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), and sometimes simply called Central America, in it ...
(later only El Salvador and Honduras), and was even officially made the sixth state within the Federal Republic, untill it was invaded and re-incorporated within Guatemala in 1840. The most important figure in Los Altan independence was General Agustín Guzmán
Agustín Guzmán, nicknamed "The Altense Hero", was a liberal Central American military general, politician and positivist, who was appointed as Army Commander in Chief of the State of Los Altos when it was formed as part of the Federal Repub ...
, a supporter of Francisco Morazán, who originally attempted to defend Los Altos from the Guatemalan invasion, and later was the main leader of secessionist revolts in the 1840s. Guzmán died of wounds after an unsuccessful occupation of Guatemala City
Guatemala City ( es, Ciudad de Guatemala), known locally as Guatemala or Guate, is the capital and largest city of Guatemala, and the most populous urban area in Central America. The city is located in the south-central part of the country, ne ...
in 1849.
Free State of the Isthmus
The Free State of the Isthmus was a short-lived independent state located in present day Panama. The state was created after a popular meeting on November 18, 1840 with General Tomás de Herrera as president, but the state was only recognised by theUnited States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
and Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
and only lasted about 13 months. Tomás de Herrera originally fought against an independence movement in Panama led by Juan Eligio Alzuru and was appointed Colonel Commandant General of the Isthmus of Panama.
Republic of Puerto Rico
The Republic of Puerto Rico was the name of the revolting state during the "'' Grito de Lares"''. The revolt was originally planned by Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis, but Belvis died before the revolt was initiated. The republic was declared on September 28th, 1868 in the town ofLares
Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these.
Lare ...
, with Francisco Ramírez Medina
Francisco Ramírez Medina (born c.1828), was one of the leaders of "El Grito de Lares", the first major revolt against Spanish rule and call for independence in Puerto Rico in 1868. He has thus far been the only person to be named "President of t ...
as president, but the revolt itself was headed by Manuel Rojas Luzardo. After an unsuccessful attempt at taking San Sebastián del Pepino, the rebels returned to Lares, where they were arrested by Puerto Rican militia. The revolt ended, and the republic was dissolved.
Gallery
José Joaquín de Olmedo
José Joaquín de Olmedo y Maruri (20 March 1780 – 19 February 1847) was President of Ecuador from 6 March 1845 to 8 December 1845. A patriot and poet, he was the son of the Spanish Captain Don Miguel de Olmedo y Troyano and the Guayaquilean An ...
, Guayaquil
File:Nunezcaceres.jpg, José Núñez de Cáceres
José Núñez de Cáceres y Albor (March 14, 1772 – September 11, 1846) was a Dominican politician and writer. He is known for being the leader of the independence movement against Spain in 1821 and the only president of the short-lived Repu ...
, Spanish Haiti
File:General Agustín Guzmán.jpg, Agustín Guzmán
Agustín Guzmán, nicknamed "The Altense Hero", was a liberal Central American military general, politician and positivist, who was appointed as Army Commander in Chief of the State of Los Altos when it was formed as part of the Federal Repub ...
, Los Altos
File:Tomás de Herrera SPC.jpg, Tomás de Herrera, Isthmus of Panama
File:Manuel Rojas Luzardo 1.jpg, Manuel Rojas Luzardo, Puerto Rico
''Caudillos'' in literature
Fictional Hispanic American caudillos, sometimes based on real historical figures, are important in literature. Colombian Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García Márquez published two works with strongmen as main characters, ''The Autumn of the Patriarch'' and ''The General in his Labyrinth'', a controversial novel aboutSimón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
. In 1946, Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias published ''El Señor Presidente'', based on the life of Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920), which was translated to English in 1975. Augusto Roa Bastos published a novel based on the life of Paraguayan caudillo Dr. Francia. In Mexico, two fictional caudillos are depicted by Mariano Azuela
Mariano Azuela González (January 1, 1873 – March 1, 1952) was a Mexican author and physician, best known for his fictional stories of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. He wrote novels, works for theatre and literary criticism. He is the fi ...
's 1916 novel ''Los de Abajo'' and Carlos Fuentes's novel ''The Death of Artemio Cruz''. Mexican writer Martín Luis Guzmán
Martín Luis Guzmán Franco (October 6, 1887 – December 22, 1976) was a Mexican novelist and journalist. Along with Mariano Azuela and Nellie Campobello, he is considered a pioneer of the revolutionary novel, a genre inspired by the experiences ...
published in 1929 his novel ''La sombra del caudillo '', a powerful critic of such strongmen. An outlier in terms of subject matter is Rómulo Gallegos
Rómulo Ángel del Monte Carmelo Gallegos Freire (2 August 1884 – 5 April 1969) was a Venezuelan novelist and politician. For a period of nine months during 1948, he governed as the first freely elected president in Venezuela's history. He was ...
's ''Doña Bárbara
''Doña Bárbara (Lady Bárbara)'' is a novel by Venezuelan author Rómulo Gallegos, first published in 1929. It was described in 1974 as "possibly the most widely known Latin American novel".Shaw, Donald, "Gallegos' Revision of Doña Bárbara ...
'', depicting a woman caudillo.Rómulo Gallegos, ''Doña Bárbara''. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts 1961.
See also
* List of Caudillos * Caesarism *Cult of personality
A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create an id ...
* Great man theory
* Leaderism The Russian political term leaderism (russian: вождизм, vozhdism) means "a policy directed at the affirmation/confirmation of one person in the role of an indisputable or infallible leader". Vozhdism is widespread in totalitarian and authorit ...
* Conducător
''Conducător'' (, "Leader") was the title used officially by Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu during World War II, also occasionally used in official discourse to refer to Carol II and Nicolae Ceaușescu.
History
The word is derived from the Ro ...
* Caciquismo and Caudillismo
Cited sources
* * *References
pi pFurther reading
Definitions, theories, and contexts
*Alexander, Robert J. "Caudillos, Coroneis, and Political Bosses in Latin America." In ''Presidential Power in Latin American Politics'', ed. Thomas V. DiBacco. New York: Prager 1977. *Beezley, William H. "Caudillismo: An Interpretative Note." ''Journal of Inter-American Studies'' 11 (July 1969): 345–52. *Collier, David, ed. ''The New Authoritarianism in Latin America''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1979. * Dealy, Glenn Cudill. ''The Public Man: An Interpretation of Latin America and other Catholic Countries''. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1977. * *DiTella, Torcuato S. ''Latin American Politics: A Theoretical Framework''. Austin: University of Texas Press 1989. *Hale, Charles A. "The Reconstruction of Nineteenth-Century Politics in Spanish America: A Case for the History of Ideas." ''Latin American Research Review'' 8 (Summer 1973), 53–73. *Hamill, Hugh, ed. ''Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1992. *Humphreys, R.A. "The Caudillo Tradition." in ''Tradition and Revolt in Latin America, 216–28. New York: Columbia University Press 1969. * Johnson, John J. "Foreign Factors in Dictatorship in Latin America". ''Pacific Historical Review'' 20 (1951) *Kern, Robert, ed. ''The Caciques: Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1973. * Loveman, Brian. ''The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993. * Lynch, John, ''Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850''. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1992. *Pleasants, Edwin Hemingway, ''The Caudillo: a Study in Latin-American Dictatorships''. Monmouth, IL: Commercial Art Press 1959. * Smith, Peter H. "Political Legitimacy in Spanish America" in ''New Approaches to Latin American History'', Richard Graham and Peter Smith, eds. 1974. *Wolf, Eric R. and Edward C. Hanson, "''Caudillo'' Politics: A Structural Analysis." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 9 (1966–67): 168–79.Regions and individuals
* Balfour, Sebastian (1990). ''Castro''. * Brading, D.A., ed. ''Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1980. * Gilmore, Robert L. ''Caudillism and Militarism in Venezuela, 1810–1910''. 1994. * Haigh, Roger M. ''Martin Güemes: Tyrant or Tool? A Study of the Sources of Power of an Argentine Caudillo''. 1968. * Hamill, Hugh M., ed. ''Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America''. Selections on Hidalgo, Quiroga, Moreno, Díaz, Trujillo, Perón, Castro, Pinochet, and Stroessner. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1992. * Lynch, John. "Bolívar and the Caudillos". ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 63 No. 1 (1983), 3–35. * Lynch, John. ''Argentine Dictator: Juan Manuel de Rosas, 1829–1852''. 1981. * Lynch, John. ''Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850''. Chapters on Rosas, Páez, Santa Anna, and Carrera. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1992. * Page, Joseph A. ''Perón: A Biography''. 1983. * Park, James William. ''Rafael Núñez and the Politics of Colombian Regionalism, 1863–1886''. (1985) * Smith, Peter H. ''Democracy in Latin America: Political Change in Comparative Perspective''. New York: Oxford University Press 2005. * Wiarda, Howard. ''Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic''. 1968. * * * Woodward, Ralph Lee. ''Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871''. 1993. {{Highest Military Ranks 19th-century rulers in North America Argentine Civil War Authoritarianism Coups d'état Dictatorship Francoist Spain History of North America History of South America History of the Americas Military personnel Populism Spanish American wars of independence Spanish language Titles of national or ethnic leadership