Capacitation
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Capacitation is the penultimate step in the maturation of
mammal Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
ian
spermatozoa A spermatozoon (; also spelled spermatozoön; ; ) is a motile sperm cell, or moving form of the haploid cell that is the male gamete. A spermatozoon joins an ovum to form a zygote. (A zygote is a single cell, with a complete set of chromosomes, ...
and is required to render them competent to fertilize an
oocyte An oocyte (, ), oöcyte, or ovocyte is a female gametocyte or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or egg cell. An oocyte is produced in a female fetus in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female ...
. This step is a biochemical event; the sperm move normally and look mature prior to capacitation. ''
In vivo Studies that are ''in vivo'' (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and ...
'', capacitation occurs after
ejaculation Ejaculation is the discharge of semen (the ''ejaculate''; normally containing sperm) from the male reproductory tract as a result of an orgasm. It is the final stage and natural objective of male sexual stimulation, and an essential componen ...
, when the spermatozoa leave the vagina and enter the superior
female reproductive tract The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in the reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able ...
. The
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The uter ...
aids in the steps of capacitation by secreting sterol-binding
albumin Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All the proteins of the albumin family are water-soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins ...
,
lipoprotein A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly whose primary function is to transport hydrophobic lipid (also known as fat) molecules in water, as in blood plasma or other extracellular fluids. They consist of a triglyceride and cholesterol center, sur ...
s, and
proteolytic Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. Uncatalysed, the hydrolysis of peptide bonds is extremely slow, taking hundreds of years. Proteolysis is typically catalysed by cellular enzymes called proteases, ...
and glycosidasic
enzymes Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecule ...
such as heparin. For purposes of ''
in vitro ''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology an ...
'' fertilization, capacitation occurs by incubating spermatozoa that have either undergone ejaculation or have been extracted from the
epididymis The epididymis (; plural: epididymides or ) is a tube that connects a testicle to a vas deferens in the male reproductive system. It is a single, narrow, tightly-coiled tube in adult humans, in length. It serves as an interconnection between the ...
and incubated in a defined medium for several hours. There are different techniques to perform the capacitation step: simple washing, migration (swim-up), density gradients, and filter. The objective is to isolate as many motile spermatozoa as possible and to eliminate non-motile or dead spermatozoa. After either ''in vivo'' or ''in vitro'' capacitation the sperm must undergo the final maturation step, activation, involving the
acrosome reaction During fertilization, a sperm must first fuse with the plasma membrane and then penetrate the female egg cell to fertilize it. Fusing to the egg cell usually causes little problem, whereas penetrating through the egg's hard shell or extracellular ...
. Non-mammalian spermatozoa do not require this capacitation step and are ready to fertilize an oocyte immediately after release from the male.


Function and mechanism

Capacitation has two effects: destabilisation of the acrosomal sperm head membrane which allows it to penetrate the outer layer of the egg, and chemical changes in the tail that allow a greater mobility in the sperm. The changes are facilitated by the removal of
sterols Sterol is an organic compound with formula , whose molecule is derived from that of gonane by replacement of a hydrogen atom in position 3 by a hydroxyl group. It is therefore an alcohol of gonane. More generally, any compounds that contain the gon ...
(e.g.
cholesterol Cholesterol is any of a class of certain organic molecules called lipids. It is a sterol (or modified steroid), a type of lipid. Cholesterol is biosynthesized by all animal cells and is an essential structural component of animal cell mem ...
) and non-covalently bound epididymal/seminal
glycoproteins Glycoproteins are proteins which contain oligosaccharide chains covalently attached to amino acid side-chains. The carbohydrate is attached to the protein in a cotranslational or posttranslational modification. This process is known as glycos ...
. The result is a more fluid membrane with an increased permeability to Ca2+ ion. An influx of Ca2+ produces increased intracellular
cAMP Camp may refer to: Outdoor accommodation and recreation * Campsite or campground, a recreational outdoor sleeping and eating site * a temporary settlement for nomads * Camp, a term used in New England, Northern Ontario and New Brunswick to descri ...
levels and thus, an increase in motility.
Hyperactivation Hyperactivation is a type of sperm motility. Hyperactivated sperm motility is characterised by a high amplitude, asymmetrical beating pattern of the sperm tail (flagellum). This type of motility may aid in sperm penetration of the zona pellucid ...
coincides with the onset of capacitation and is the result of the increased Ca2+ levels. It has a synergistic stimulatory effect with adenosine that increases
adenylyl cyclase Adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as adenyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, abbreviated AC) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming). It catalyzes the following reaction: :A ...
activity in the sperm. The tripeptide
fertilization promoting peptide Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. Proce ...
(FPP) is essential for controlling capacitation. FPP is produced in the
prostate gland The prostate is both an accessory gland of the male reproductive system and a muscle-driven mechanical switch between urination and ejaculation. It is found only in some mammals. It differs between species anatomically, chemically, and physio ...
as a component of the seminal fluid. FPP comes into contact with the spermatozoa during ejaculation, as the sperm and seminal fluid mix. High levels of active FPP prevent capacitation. After ejaculation, the concentration of FPP drops in the female reproductive tract.


Induction

Because
assisted reproductive technologies Assisted reproductive technology (ART) includes medical procedures used primarily to address infertility. This subject involves procedures such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), cryopreservation of gametes ...
, or ARTs, such as ''in vitro'' fertilization (IVF) or
intrauterine insemination Artificial insemination is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female's cervix or uterine cavity for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization by means other than sexual intercourse. It is a fertility treatment ...
(IUI) require the induction of sperm cell capacitation outside of normal biological parameters, numerous methods have been developed to induce this process in mammalian sperm cells. Sperm cells are harvested through ejaculation or harvested from the caudal
epididymis The epididymis (; plural: epididymides or ) is a tube that connects a testicle to a vas deferens in the male reproductive system. It is a single, narrow, tightly-coiled tube in adult humans, in length. It serves as an interconnection between the ...
and allowed to liquefy at room temperature. Capacitation can then be induced by adding media designed to mimic the electrolytic composition of the
fallopian tube The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes, oviducts or salpinges (singular salpinx), are paired tubes in the human female that stretch from the uterus to the ovaries. The fallopian tubes are part of the female reproductive system. In ot ...
s, where fertilization occurs. These media vary between species, but are saline-based and contain energy substrates such as lactate, pyruvate, and possibly glucose. A cholesterol acceptor is required to facilitate the removal of cholesterol from the sperm cell membrane, which is always albumin.
Bovine serum albumin Bovine serum albumin (BSA or "Fraction V") is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a protein concentration standard in lab experiments. The nickname "Fraction V" refers to albumin being the fifth fraction of the origin ...
is typically used for ''in vitro'' animal studies, and
human serum albumin Human serum albumin is the serum albumin found in human blood. It is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma; it constitutes about half of serum protein. It is produced in the liver. It is soluble in water, and it is monomeric. Albumin ...
(HSA) is used in human sperm capacitation induction.
Bicarbonate In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula . Bicarbonate serves a crucial biochemic ...
is a vital component of capacitation-inducing media, as it is co-transported into the
cytosol The cytosol, also known as cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondri ...
where it activates soluble
adenylyl cyclase Adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as adenyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, abbreviated AC) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming). It catalyzes the following reaction: :A ...
(sAC) as well as acts as a pH buffer necessary to prevent decreasing the pH in the culture, a necessary addition when incubating cells at 5% CO2 as is generally used although not required.
Calcium chloride Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide. Ca ...
is added to facilitated the influx via of calcium cations. In animal models, Tyrode's albumin lactate pyruvate (TALP) medium is typically used as a base, which contains each of these components. In humans, human tubal fluid (HTF) is used. These media can be supplemented with other chemicals to induce hyperactivated sperm motility and/or the acrosome reaction. For animal in vitro fertilization,
caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is mainly used recreationally as a cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine t ...
at 5 mM concentration is a strong inducer of sperm capacitation ''in vitro''. Calcium
ionophore In chemistry, an ionophore () is a chemical species that reversibly binds ions. Many ionophores are lipid-soluble entities that transport ions across the cell membrane. Ionophores catalyze ion transport across hydrophobic membranes, such as liq ...
s are also ideal to induce capacitation. Adding heparin to capacitation inducing medium mimics the secretion of heparin-like gycosaminoglycans (GAGs) near the oocyte and initiates the acrosome reaction. This effect is magnified when adding
lysophosphatidylcholine Lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC, lysoPC), also called lysolecithins, are a class of chemical compounds which are derived from phosphatidylcholines. Overview Lysophosphatidylcholines are produced within cells mainly by the enzyme phospholipase ...
(LC) in conjunction with heparin.
Catecholamine A catecholamine (; abbreviated CA) is a monoamine neurotransmitter, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl side groups next to each other) and a side-chain amine. Catechol can be either a free molecule or a subst ...
s such as
norepinephrine Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as both a hormone and neurotransmitter. The name "noradrenaline" (from Latin '' ad'', ...
at low concentrations have been shown to assist in acrosome reaction induction.


''In vitro'' capacitation techniques

The traditional methods to perform ''in vitro'' capacitation are: *Simple wash: this method only eliminates seminal plasma, it does not select the best spermatozoa. The sample is centrifuged and then, the supernatant is eliminated. It is used in severe oligozoospermia, criptozoospermia or testis biopsy samples. It is performed before other capacitation techniques too. *Migration (swim-up). Firstly, centrifugation takes place and seminal plasma is eliminated. Then, 0.5 -1 ml of culture medium is added at the top and after the incubation period at 37°C, the best motile spermatozoa will have ascend from the bottom to the top of the tube (healthy spermatozoa go to the culture medium). In order to obtain the fraction rich in spermatozoa, the top layer is collected. It is still widely used and useful in normozoospermia. It allows to obtain fractions with more than 90% of PR spermatozoa. *Density gradients. In this technique, a tube is filled with layers of liquids of different densities and semen is placed on the top layer. Then, The tube goes through a centrifugation to filter cell debris and non motile cells. After the centrifugation, healthy sperm are on the very bottom layer of the liquid in the tube, while debris and non-motile spermatozoa are in upper layers. This procedure takes approximately 60 minutes and it is specially indicated in oligozoospermia, asthenozoospermia and abundant debris samples. At the end, all the cells will arrive to the bottom, but those with more motility will arrive sooner. This procedure is often called just the "Percoll method", since Percoll was frequently used as the density medium, but other density mediums are now used. *Filtration. It consist in a filter that does not allow every sperm to pass. It is less used nowadays and only spermatozoa with better motility will pass through the filter. However, nowadays there are new techniques which surpass these ones. For instance, we have PICSI, MACS or microfluidic chips.


Measurement

Numerous methods have been developed to assess the degree to which sperm cells are undergoing capacitation in vitro. Computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) was developed in the 1980s for measuring sperm kinematics. CASA uses
phase-contrast microscopy __NOTOC__ Phase-contrast microscopy (PCM) is an optical microscopy technique that converts phase shifts in light passing through a transparent specimen to brightness changes in the image. Phase shifts themselves are invisible, but become visible ...
combined with sperm tracking software to analyze sperm motility parameters. Certain parameters such as curvilinear velocity (VCL), straightline velocity (VSL), average path velocity (VAP), and the amplitude of lateral head displacement (ALH) have been shown to be positively correlated with the acquisition of fertilization competency and are thus used to identify hyperactive sperm cell motility. While motility measurements are critical for identifying the presence of hyperactive motility, additional methods have been developed to identify the occurrence of the acrosome reaction. A simple method uses Coomassie brilliant blue G250 to stain cells, providing visual evidence of intact or reacted acrosomes. More advanced techniques employ fluorescent or
electron microscopy An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a hi ...
methods.
Fluorescein Fluorescein is an organic compound and dye based on the xanthene tricyclic structural motif, formally belonging to triarylmethine dyes family. It is available as a dark orange/red powder slightly soluble in water and alcohol. It is widely used ...
-conjugated
Peanut agglutinin Peanut agglutinin (PNA) is plant lectin protein derived from the fruits of ''Arachis hypogaea''. Peanut agglutinin may also be referred to as ''Arachis hypogaea'' lectin. Lectins recognise and bind particular sugar sequences in carbohydrates; peanu ...
(FITC-PNA) or ''
Pisum sativum The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
''
agglutinin An agglutinin is a substance in the blood that causes particles to coagulate and aggregate; that is, to change from fluid-like state to a thickened-mass (solid) state. Agglutinins can be antibodies that cause antigens to aggregate by binding t ...
(FITC-PSA) can be used to fluorescently tag the acrosome of sperm cells, which can be then used to assess the status of the acrosome using a
fluorescent microscope A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence instead of, or in addition to, scattering, reflection, and attenuation or absorption, to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. "Fluorescence microsc ...
.


Discovery

The discovery of this process was independently reported in 1951 by both
Min Chueh Chang Min Chueh Chang (, October 10, 1908 – June 5, 1991), often credited as M.C. Chang, was a Chinese-American reproductive biologist. His specific area of study was the fertilisation process in mammalian reproduction. Though his career produced ...
and Colin Russell Austin.


See also

*
Cortical reaction The cortical reaction is a process initiated during fertilization that prevents polyspermy, the fusion of multiple sperm with one egg. In contrast to the fast block of polyspermy which immediately but temporarily blocks additional sperm from fert ...
*
Acrosome reaction During fertilization, a sperm must first fuse with the plasma membrane and then penetrate the female egg cell to fertilize it. Fusing to the egg cell usually causes little problem, whereas penetrating through the egg's hard shell or extracellular ...


References


Further reading

* * *


External links

* {{MeshName, Sperm+Capacitation Mammal reproductive system Germ cells Andrology