Bureau of Indian Education

The Bureau of Indian Education (BIE), headquartered in the Main Interior Building in Washington, D.C., and formerly known as the Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP), is a division of the U.S. Department of the Interior under the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs. It is responsible for the line direction and management of all BIE education functions, including the formation of policies and procedures, the supervision of all program activities, and the approval of the expenditure of funds appropriated for BIE education functions.

The BIE school system has 184 elementary and secondary schools and dormitories located on 63 reservations in 23 states, including seven off-reservation boarding schools, and 122 schools directly controlled by tribes and tribal school boards under contracts or grants with the BIE. The bureau also funds 66 residential programs for students at 52 boarding schools and at 14 dormitories housing those attending nearby tribal or public schools. It is one of two U.S. federal government school systems, along with the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA).

In the area of post-secondary education, the BIE provides support to 24 tribal colleges and universities across the U.S. serving over 25,000 students. It directly operates two institutions of higher learning: Haskell Indian Nations University (HINU) in Lawrence, Kansas, and Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI) near Albuquerque, New Mexico. Additionally, the BIE operates higher education scholarship programs for American Indians and Alaska Natives.

Alden Woods of ''The Arizona Republic'' wrote in 2020 that the BIE is "an overlooked and often criticized agency".
Alternate link
at ProPublica

History

Circa 1990 the Hopi tribe began the process of taking BIA schools in their territory into tribal control. They managed this under authorization provided by legislation in 1975, which allowed tribes to contract with the BIA/BIE to manage and operate their own schools.

Prior to August 29, 2006, it was known as the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP).

Operations

The headquarters is in the Main Interior Building in Washington, DC.

The federal government funds schools for Native Americans under the treaties it established for reservations and trust lands. In the early years, the government authorized religious missions to establish schools and churches on reservations. At the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Congress authorized the government to establish numerous Indian boarding schools for a more concerted program of assimilation of Native American children. These were established at both the elementary and high school levels.

As Indian reservations cannot levy taxes, local school taxes cannot be used to fund Native American schools.

Alden Woods of the ''Arizona Republic'' described the BIE as having the characteristics of both a state education agency and a school district, with its supervision and funding of tribally controlled/grant schools making it the former and its direct operation of BIE schools making it the latter. By the beginning of the 21st century, education expenses of the BIE represented 35% of the BIA budget. But studies since the 1969 Kennedy Report have shown that the schools have been underfunded. Despite the education responsibility, much of the BIA staff are specialists in land management rather than education.

Since the 1970s, school boards have been elected on reservations to oversee BIE schools, as in the Southwest United States.

In 2015 the BIE spent about $15,000 per student in the schools it operated, 56% above the per-student average cost for a public school student in the United States. The BIE schools were ranked as among the most costly to operate in the United States.

The predecessor agency OEIP had say only in operations related to instruction, while other BIA agencies had controlled other aspects, such as hiring and other employee issues, and construction and renovation of schools, and related infrastructure such as roads. Severns wrote that the various sources of authority made school accountability difficult.

A 2015 editorial of the ''Minneapolis Star-Tribune'' noted that schools in the BIE network were underfunded while schools in the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA), the federal military dependent school network, were well funded.

Student body

the BIE-funded/grant/direct schools in total had 46,000 students, meaning they educated about 8% of the Native American students in the United States. - Alternate link: Members of some tribes have moved to cities, and many states have increased coverage of reservation and tribal lands through their public school districts. about 90% of Native American students attended public schools operated by local school districts, rather than federally funded or operated schools.

the BIE schools are located in many isolated areas with some of the lowest incomes in the United States. Maggie Severns of ''Politico'' wrote in 2015 that "Students often come from difficult backgrounds".

In 1978, 47,000 Native American K-12 students (17 of the total%) attended schools directly operated by the BIA and 2,500 (1%) attended tribal schools and/or other schools that contracted with the BIA.

Employees

Circa 2015 the BIE had 4,500 employees. In November 2015 the BIE had 140 empty teaching slots. The agency had difficulty with teacher retention, especially as many schools are located in isolated areas.

Academic performance and reputation

BIA/BIE schools have been criticized for decades for poor academic performance, and for the failure to establish metrics that allow performance to be measured. In 1969 the graduation rate was circa 59%. Circa 1970 the overall dropout rate of BIA schools was 100% higher than the U.S. dropout average. Citing this statistic, that year President of the United States Richard Nixon criticized BIA schools. The 1969 report by the Select Subcommittee of the U.S. Senate in 1969 (known as the Kennedy Report, as it was headed by Robert F. Kennedy prior to his assassination) also criticized BIA schools.

In 1988 a Department of Interior report blamed all levels of leadership for substandard test scores. In 2001 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) wrote "The academic achievement of many BIA students as measured by their performance on standardized tests and other measures is far below the performance of students in public schools. BIA students also score considerably below national averages on college admissions tests." Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama made attempts to improve BIE schools. In 2015 Maggie Severns of ''Politico'' wrote that BIE students "have some of the lowest test scores and graduation rates in the country".

In the 2018-2019 school year, the percentage of BIE students passing their schools' standardized examinations was about 10% for mathematics and 15% for the English language. In 2011 BIE students scored better on examinations than students at Detroit Public Schools, but every other large urban school district outperformed students of BIE schools.

In 2015 the graduation rate was 53%. In the 2017-2018 school year, the graduation rate was 64%, but in 2018-2019 the graduation rate had declined to 59%. In 2015 the average United States graduation rate was 81%. The graduation rate for Native American and Alaska Native students enrolled at school district-operated public schools was 67%.

From circa 2017 to 2020, the BIE did not follow the terms of the Every Student Succeeds Act. As of 2020 the BIE does not have a consistent testing system for all schools, nor does it provide the public academic outcomes information that traditional public schools are required to publish under state laws.

Schools

BIE network schools are often located in rural, isolated areas where alternative options for schooling are not feasible. there were 180 schools in the BIE network.

In 1987 the BIA supported 58 tribal schools and directly operated 17 boarding schools, 17 day schools, and 14 dormitories housing students enrolled in public schools operated by local school districts.

Directly operated

the BIE operates about 33% of the schools in its system.
A listing of schools directly operated by the Bureau of Indian Education:National Directory June 2015

Archive
. Bureau of Indian Education. Retrieved on June 16, 2015.

* Albuquerque Center:
** Flandreau Indian Boarding School (Flandreau, South Dakota)
** Isleta Elementary School ( Albuquerque, New Mexico)
** Jemez Day School (Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico)
** Riverside Indian School (Anadarko, Oklahoma)
** San Felipe Pueblo Elementary School (San Felipe Pueblo, New Mexico)
** San Ildefonso Day School ( Santa Fe, New Mexico)
** Sky City Community School ( Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico)
** Taos Day School (Taos, New Mexico)
** T'siya Day School (Zia Pueblo, New Mexico)
* Belcourt, North Dakota Center:
** Blackfeet Dormitory (Browning, Montana)
** Cheyenne-Eagle Butte School (Eagle Butte, South Dakota)
** Dunseith Day School (Dunseith, North Dakota)
** Ojibwa Indian School (Belcourt, North Dakota)
** Pine Ridge School (Pine Ridge, South Dakota)
** Turtle Mountain Elementary School (Belcourt, North Dakota)
** Turtle Mountain Middle School (Belcourt, North Dakota)
* Phoenix, Arizona Resource Center:
** Chemawa Indian School ( Salem, Oregon)
** First Mesa Elementary School (Polacca, Arizona)
** Havasupai Elementary School (Supai, Arizona)
** John F. Kennedy Day School (Whiteriver, Arizona)
** Keams Canyon Elementary School (Keams Canyon, Arizona)
** San Simon School (Tohono O'odham) (Sells, Arizona)
** Santa Rosa Day School (Tohono O'odham) (Sells, Arizona)
** Santa Rosa Ranch School (Sells, Arizona)
** Sherman Indian High School (Riverside, California)
** Tohono O'odham High School (Sells, Arizona)
* Window Rock, Arizona Resource Center:
** Bread Springs Day School ( Gallup, New Mexico)
** Chi Chil'tah Community School ( Chi Chil'tah, New Mexico with a Vanderwagen postal address)
** Crystal Boarding School (Crystal, New Mexico with a Navajo postal address)
** Pine Springs Day School ( Houck, Arizona)
** Wingate Elementary School (Wingate, New Mexico)
** Wingate High School (Wingate, New Mexico)
* Chinle, Arizona Resource Center:
** Cottonwood Day School (west of Chinle, Arizona)
** Dennehotso Boarding School ( Dennehotso, Arizona)
** Jeehdeez'a Academy, Inc. (Pinon, Arizona)
** Many Farms High School (Many Farms, Arizona)
* Tuba City, Arizona Resource Center:
** Kaibeto Boarding School ( Kaibeto, Arizona)
** Rocky Ridge Boarding School ( Kykotsmovi, Arizona)
** Seba Dalkai Boarding School (Winslow, Arizona)
** Tonalea (Red Lake) Day School (Tonalea, Arizona)
** Tuba City Boarding School (Tuba City, Arizona)
* Crownpoint, New Mexico Resource Center:
** Baca/Dlo'ay Azhi Community School (Prewitt, New Mexico)
** Ojo Encino Day School (Cuba, New Mexico)
** Pueblo Pintado Community School (Cuba, New Mexico)
** Lake Valley Navajo School (Crownpoint, New Mexico)
** Mariano Lake Community School (Crownpoint, New Mexico)
** T'iis Ts'ozi Bi'Olta' (Crownpoint, New Mexico)
** Tohaali' Community School (Newcomb, New Mexico)
** Tse'ii'ahi' Community School (Crownpoint, New Mexico)
* Shiprock, New Mexico Resource Center:
** Aneth Community School ( Montezuma Creek, Utah)
** Beclabito Day School (Shiprock, New Mexico)
** Cove Day School ( Red Valley, Arizona)
** Kayenta Community School (Kayenta, Arizona)
** Nenahnezad Community School (Fruitland, New Mexico)
** Red Rock Day School (Red Valley, Arizona)
** Sanostee Day School (Sanostee, New Mexico)
** T'iis Nazbas Community School (Teec Nos Pos, Arizona)

Cottonwood Day School

It was dedicated in 1968.

Crystal Boarding School

Crystal Boarding School is a K-6 boarding school in Crystal, New Mexico. In 2014 about 30 students boarded but most did not. Only one dormitory was open, as another was deemed unsafe. In 2013 5% of the students were classified as having mathematics skills on par with their grade levels even though the school had already shifted most of its instruction to mathematics and reading at the expense of science and social studies. In 2015 ''Politico'' stated that the school's campus was in a poor condition. It had no school counselor.

Dennehotso Boarding School

Dennehotso Boarding School in Dennehotso, Arizona serves grades K–8. The two buildings are OFMC projects: a school facility for 186 students and a dormitory for 33 students. The scheduled groundbreaking was February 11, 2013. The previous buildings scheduled for demolition had a total of of space. The school provides transportation for students between Baby Rocks and Mexican Water, and asks families living outside of that area and/or distant from the highway to have their children stay at the dormitory.

Rocky Ridge Boarding School

It is a K-8 boarding school in Kykotsmovi, Arizona.

In 2020 its enrollment was over 100. Alden Woods of ''The Arizona Republic'' stated "One former student described it as a refuge from a rural community struggling through generations of trauma", stating that the school provides room and board to children with no other reliable source of food and lodging.

On March 16, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona, the State of Arizona closed district-operated public schools. BIE schools were not required to close at that time, though several did. After employees met that day, COVID spread through the school's community. Once COVID infections were diagnosed, the school temporarily closed.

It holds an equine (horse) festival every year.

Tribally operated

There are also tribally operated schools affiliated with the BIE.
* Albuquerque Resource Center:
** Blackwater Community School (Coolidge, Arizona)
** Casa Blanca Community School ( Bapchule, Arizona)
** Dishchii'bikoh Community School (Cibecue, Arizona)
** Gila Crossing Community School (Laveen, Arizona)
** Hopi Day School ( Kykotsmovi, Arizona)
** Hopi Junior/Senior High School (Keams Canyon, Arizona)
** Hotevilla Bacavi Community School ( Hotevilla, Arizona)
** Jicarilla Dormitory School (Dulce, New Mexico)
** Kha'p'o Community School ( Espanola, New Mexico)
** Laguna Elementary School ( Laguna Pueblo, New Mexico)
** Laguna Middle School (Laguna Pueblo, New Mexico)
** Mescalero Apache School (Mescalero, New Mexico)
** Moencopi Day School (Moenkopi, Arizona with a Tuba City postal address)
** Ohkay Owingeh Community School (Ohkay Owingeh, New Mexico)
** Pine Hill Schools (Pine Hill, New Mexico)
** Salt River Elementary School (Scottsdale, Arizona)
** Santa Fe Indian School ( Santa Fe, New Mexico)
** Second Mesa Day School (Second Mesa, Arizona)
** Te Tsu Geh Oweenge Day School (Santa Fe, New Mexico)
** Theodore Roosevelt School (Fort Apache, Arizona)
* Window Rock, Arizona Resource Center:
** Hunters Point Boarding School (St. Michaels, Arizona)
** Kin Dah Lichi'I Olta (Ganado, Arizona)
** T'iisyaakin Residential Hall (Holbrook, Arizona)
** Wide Ruins Community School (Chambers, Arizona)
** Winslow Residential Hall (Winslow, Arizona)
* Chinle, Arizona Resource Center:
** Black Mesa Community School (Pinon, Arizona)
** Greasewood Springs Community School (Ganado, Arizona)
** Lukachukai Community School (Lukachukai, Arizona)
** Many Farms Community School ( Many Farms, Arizona)
** Nazlini Community School (Ganado, Arizona)
** Pinon Community School (Pinon, Arizona)
** Rock Point Community School ( Rock Point, Arizona)
** Rough Rock Community School (Chinle, Arizona)
* Tuba City, Arizona Resource Center:
** Chilchinbeto Community School (Kayenta, Arizona)
** Dilcon Community School (Winslow, Arizona)
** Greyhills Academy High School (Tuba City, Arizona)
** KinLani Bordertown Dormitory ( Flagstaff, Arizona)
** Leupp Schools, Inc. (Winslow, Arizona)
** Little Singer Community School ( southeast of Birdsprings, Arizona, with a Winslow postal address)
** Naa Tsis'aan Community School (Tonalea, Arizona)
** Richfield Residential Hall (Richfield, Utah)
** Shonto Preparatory School (Shonto, Arizona)
*Crownpoint, New Mexico Resource Center:
** Alamo Navajo Community School ( Alamo, New Mexico, with a Magdalena postal address)
** Ch'ooshgai Community School (Tohatchi, New Mexico)
** Dibe Yazhi Habitiin Olta' Inc. (Borrego Pass) (Crownpoint, New Mexico)
** Na'Neelzhin Ji'Olta (Torreon) (Cuba, New Mexico)
** To'hajiilee Day School (Canoncito, New Mexico)
*Shiprock, New Mexico Resource Center:
** Atsa'Biya'a'zh Community School ( Shiprock, New Mexico)
** Dzilth-Na-O-Dith-Hle Community School (Bloomfield, New Mexico)
** Hanaa'dli Community School/Dormitory Inc. (Bloomfield, New Mexico)
** Kinteel Residential Academy (Aztec Dorm) (Aztec, New Mexico)
** Navajo Preparatory School (Farmington, New Mexico)
** Shiprock Northwest High School (Shiprock, New Mexico)
** Shiprock Reservation Dormitory (Shiprock, New Mexico)
* Bloomington, Minnesota Resource Center:
** Bug-O-Nay-Ge-Shig School (Bena, Minnesota)
** Circle of Life Survival School (White Earth, Minnesota)
** Circle of Nations (Wahpeton, North Dakota)
** Fond du Lac Ojibwe School (Cloquet, Minnesota)
** Hannahville Indian School ( Wilson, Michigan)
** Joseph K. Lumsden Bahweting Anishnabe (Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan)
** Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwa School (Hayward, Wisconsin)
** Menominee Tribal School ( Neopit, Wisconsin)
** Nay-Ah-Shing School (Onamia, Minnesota)
** Oneida Nation School (Oneida, Wisconsin)
* Rapid City, South Dakota Resource Center:
** American Horse School (Allen, South Dakota)
** Crazy Horse School (Wanblee, South Dakota)
** Little Wound School (Kyle, South Dakota)
** Loneman Day School ( Oglala, South Dakota)
** Pierre Indian School Learning Center (Pierre, South Dakota)
** Porcupine Day School (Porcupine, South Dakota)
** Sicangu Owayawa Oti (Mission, South Dakota)
** St. Francis Indian School ( Saint Francis, South Dakota)
** St. Stephens Indian School ( St. Stephens, Wyoming)
** Takini School (Howes, South Dakota)
** Tiospaye Topa School ( Ridgeview, South Dakota)
** Wounded Knee ( Manderson, South Dakota)
* Seattle, Washington Resource Center:
** Chief Leschi Schools (Puyallup, Washington)
** Coeur d'Alene Tribal School ( DeSmet, Idaho)
** Duckwater Shoshone Elementary School ( Duckwater, Nevada)
** Lummi Nation School (Bellingham, Washington)
** Muckleshoot Tribal School ( Auburn, Washington)
** Noli Indian School (San Jacinto, California)
** Northern Cheyenne Tribal School ( Busby, Montana)
** Paschal Sherman Indian School (Omak, Washington)
** Pyramid Lake Jr./Sr. High School ( Nixon, Nevada)
** Quileute Tribal School ( LaPush, Washington)
** Shoshone Bannock Jr./Sr. High School ( Pocatello, Idaho)
** Two Eagle River School (Pablo, Montana)
** Wa He Lut Indian School (Olympia, Washington)
** Yakama Nation Tribal School (Toppenish, Washington)
* Flandreau, South Dakota Resource Center
** Crow Creek Reservation High School ( Stephan, South Dakota)
** Crow Creek Sioux Tribal Elementary School (Stephan, South Dakota)
** Enemy Swim School ( Waubay, South Dakota)
** Lower Brule Day School (Lower Brule, South Dakota)
** Marty Indian School ( Marty, South Dakota)
** Meskwaki Settlement School (Tama, Iowa)
** Chickasaw Children's Village ( Kingston, Oklahoma)
** Eufala Dormitory (Eufaula, Oklahoma)
** Jones Academy (Hartshorne, Oklahoma)
** Kickapoo Nation School (Powhattan, Kansas)
** Sequoyah High School (Tahlequah, Oklahoma)
** Tiospaye Zina School (Agency Village, South Dakota)
* Nashville, Tennessee Resource Center
** Ahfachkee Day School (near Clewiston, Florida)
** Beatrice Rafferty School (Perry, Maine)
** Bogue Chitto Elementary School (Philadelphia, Mississippi)
** Cherokee Central Elementary School ( Cherokee, North Carolina)
** Cherokee Central High School (Cherokee, North Carolina)
** Chitimacha Tribal School (Jeanerette, Louisiana)
** Choctaw Central High School (Choctaw, Mississippi)
** Choctaw Central Middle School (Choctaw, Mississippi)
** Conehatta Elementary School ( Conehatta, Mississippi)
** Indian Island School ( Indian Island, Maine)
** Indian Township School ( Princeton, Maine)
** Miccosukee Indian School (near Miami, Florida)
** Pearl River Elementary School (Choctaw, Mississippi)
** Red Water Elementary School (Carthage, Mississippi)
** Standing Pine Elementary School (Carthage, Mississippi)
** Tucker Elementary School (Philadelphia, Mississippi)
* Bismarck, North Dakota Resource Center
** Mandaree Day School (Mandaree, North Dakota)
** Rock Creek Grant School (Bullhead, South Dakota)
** Little Eagle Grant School ( Little Eagle, South Dakota) - It was known as Sitting Bull School until 2016.
** Standing Rock Community School (Fort Yates, North Dakota)
** Tate Topa Tribal School (Fort Totten, North Dakota)
** Theodore Jamerson Elementary School (Bismarck, North Dakota)
** Turtle Mountain High School (Belcourt, North Dakota)
** Twin Buttes Day School ( Halliday, North Dakota)
** White Shield School ( West Roseglen, North Dakota)

American Horse School

It was established in 1931 as the consolidation of Day School #20 and Day School #21, with the former buildings of those two schools becoming teacher housing. its enrollment is 330. Its service area, in addition to Allen, includes Kyle and Martin, and includes the Lacreek, Pass Creek and Medicine Root Creek districts of the reservation.

In 2015 the ''Minneapolis Star-Tribune'' editorial board wrote that American Horse had poor insulation, had too many students relative to building capacity, has tile flooring in poor repair and using asbestos, and "lacks the electrical and communications infrastructure needed to support the technology used in modern education."

Chitimacha Tribal School

In 1937 a two classroom public school building condemned by the St. Mary Parish School Board was moved to Charenton, and began serving the community as a 1-8 school; the student population went over 60. In 1968 the kindergarten was established. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) built a new school, which began operations in 1978, to replace the former facility. It had 38 in the 1978-1979 school year, but this went down to 29 in 1980-1981 and 22 in 1981-1982. In 1982 it got a funding cut due to Reaganomics, which led to fears that the school could close.

Duckwater Shoshone Elementary School

A K-8 school, it is in a building on the Duckwater Reservation in Duckwater that previously functioned as a church. The school was established circa 1973 by tribal members who were not satisfied with their children's course in the Nye County School District. The school board was established on July 26 of that year, and it opened on November 26 of that year after the United States Office of Education granted $35,000.
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/ref> In 1975 its student count was 21.
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/ref> In 1982 the school got a renovation. By 1986 the relationship between the county's Duckwater School and Duckwater Shoshone School community had mended.
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at Newspapers.com. Duckwater Shoshone maintains its own zoological garden.

Lukachukai Community School

The campus has of property and includes a dormitory. In 1976, the seventh grade at Lukachukai ended so that grade was sent to Chinle Boarding School (now Many Farms Community School). In 2015 the school was under-resourced, and the school community made an effort to get a replacement facility. Principal Arthur Ben personally recruited teachers, including some who were previously retired.

Theodore Roosevelt School

Theodore Roosevelt School (TRS) is a tribally controlled middle school in Fort Apache, Arizona. It includes grades 6-8. It is in the White Mountains and serves the White Mountain Apache Tribe.
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The dormitories opened sometime after 1935. A cafeteria opened in 1948. In 1995 it had 100 students. By 1995 conditions at the school had deteriorated to the point where students had to be boarded at ad hoc dormitorites as the standard dormitory buildings needed heating repairs and asbestos removal. Additionally the cafeteria was at times unuseable; the school took students to a restaurant so they could eat there.

Wingate Elementary School

the Wingate Elementary dormitory is a former military barracks that also houses students at Wingate High. In 1968 the girls' dormitory had 125 girls; the Associated Press stated that the dormitory lacked decoration and personal effects and was reflective of a campaign to de-personalize Native American students. At the time the school strongly discouraged students from speaking Navajo and wanted them to only speak English. Circa 1977 it opened a 125-student $90,000 building which used a solar heating system.

Former facilities

Includes the BIE, OIEP, and predecessor agencies:
*Albuquerque Indian School
*Manuelito Hall in Gallup, New Mexico, a dormitory which housed Native American students attending Gallup-McKinley County Schools. In 1973 it had about 300 students, including 12 from Arizona. That year the BIA closed Manuelito Hall, planning to move students to various boarding schools. The public school system's funding was not anticipated to be harmed by this closure. There were some families that wanted their children to remain at Gallup-McKinley schools as they perceived them to be better than BIA schools. The BIA planned to send the Arizonans to Arizona, and of the remaining students: 110 high school students to Wingate High School, 80 elementary students to Crownpoint Boarding School, 45 elementary school students to Wingate Elementary School, and others to Chuska Boarding School and Tohatchi Boarding School.
*Mount Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, Alaska, now operated by the State of Alaska
*Phoenix Indian School
*Eight Mile School District - Public school district that was BIE/OIE-funded from 1987 to 2008; in 2008 the BIE declared that it was not tribally controlled and therefore should never have received BIE funds.

See also

* Bureau of Indian Affairs
* Charles Monty Roessel

References

Further reading

* Carter, Patricia A.
"Completely Discouraged": Women Teachers' Resistance in the Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools, 1900-1910
" '' Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies'' Vol. 15, No. 3 (1995), pp. 53–86. University of Nebraska Press. Available at JSTOR. DOIbr>10.2307/3346785

*
Read chapter online

Introduction

External links

*

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bureau Of Indian Education


United States Bureau of Indian Affairs
School districts in the United States