The Bronze Age is a period in the

Prehistoric Romania This article covers the history and bibliography of Romania and links to specialized articles. Prehistory 34,950-year-old remains of modern humans with a possible Neanderthalian trait were discovered in present-day Romania when the '' Pe� ...

n timeline and is sub-divided into

Early Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...

(c. 3500–2200 BC), Middle Bronze Age (c.2200–1600/1500 BC), and

Late Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...

(c. 1600/1500–1100 BC).Cristian Ștefan-''Epoca Bronzului'', page 1

Periodization

Several

Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...

chronologies have been applied to the Romanian area. An example would be the Periodization of Paul Reinecke for the Central European space, which split the Bronze Age into four phases (A, B, C and D) based upon the associations among the found bronze objects.

Features

During the Bronze Age, there were some important developments from the

Chalcolithic The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and ''líthos'', "stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin '' aeneus'' "of copper"), is an archaeological period characterized by regular ...

, with significant improvements in the

economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...

. The local bronze-aged economy was based on rearing livestock (sheep, goats and pigs). The

Wietenberg culture The Wietenberg culture was a Middle Bronze Age archeological culture in Central Transylvania that roughly dates to 2200–1600/1500 BCE. Represented a local variant of Usatove culture, was contemporary with the Ottomány culture and Unetice cult ...

reared large cattle and horses for both transportation and food. At this time, the artistic output also significantly increased, for example the Gârla Mare culture who created intricate clay statuettes. In the Early Bronze Age (c. 3500–2200 BC), we see the archaeological evidence of various cultures developing, including the Baden-Coţofeni culture, the Cernavodă III-Belleraz culture, the Glina-Schneckenberg culture and the Verbicioara culture. Common occupations were

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...

, mining, and animal husbandry. Houses were rectangular and medium-sized. The last period of the Early Bronze Age produced a broad range of ornaments ( loop rings,

bracelets A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. Bracelets may serve different uses, such as being worn as an ornament. When worn as ornaments, bracelets may have a supportive function to hold other items of decoration, suc ...

necklaces A necklace is an article of jewellery that is worn around the neck. Necklaces may have been one of the earliest types of adornment worn by humans. They often serve ceremonial, religious, magical, or funerary purposes and are also used as symbol ...

pendants A pendant is a loose-hanging piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace, which may be known as a "pendant necklace". A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down. Its name stems from the Latin word ' ...

comprising

copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...

gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile me ...

, and

silver Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...

and particularly bronze). Verbicioara culture was identified in 1949 by the eponymous resort excavations. Regarding burial customs, it was considered the beginning of the burial of the dead. In the Middle Bronze Age (c.2200–1600/1500 BC), the population of

Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...

and neighboring countries was demarcated by the appearance of several major cultures. Some that stand out include the Otomani culture (seen also in

Slovakia Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...

(seen in

Transylvania Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...

), Mureş culture, and Gârla Mare culture (from which impressive clay figurines and statuettes have been found).

Religion

The Bronze Age introduced solar, or Uranian, cults. Some ornaments, considered to be solar symbols, were frequently pictured on

ceramic A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain ...

or metal parts:

concentric circles In geometry, two or more objects are said to be concentric, coaxal, or coaxial when they share the same center or axis. Circles, regular polygons and regular polyhedra, and spheres may be concentric to one another (sharing the same center poi ...

, circles accompanied by rays, and the swastika.

Cremation Cremation is a method of final disposition of a dead body through burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India and Nepal, cremation on an open-air pyre is ...

is considered to be connected to these cults. In the Romanian territory, there are three known bronze-aged sanctuaries:

Sălacea Sălacea ( hu, Szalacs) is a commune in Bihor County, Crișana, Romania with a population of 3,036. It is composed of two villages, Otomani (''Ottomány'') and Sălacea. The Otomani culture, a local Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a histori ...

Bihor County Bihor County () is a county (județ) in western Romania. With a total area of , Bihor is Romania's 6th largest county geographically and the main county in the historical region of Crișana. Its capital city is Oradea. Toponymy The origin of ...

(

Ottomány culture The Ottomány culture, also known as Otomani culture in Romania or Otomani-Füzesabony culture in Hungary, was an early Bronze Age culture (ca. 2100–1600 BC) in Central Europe named after the eponymous site near the village of Ottomány ( ro, O ...

, phase II). The only cultures of this area well represented in this regard are the Gârla Mare Zuto Brdo culture and the Bijelo Szeremle Brdo-Dalj culture (also present in

Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...

and

Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...

). About 340 pieces were found in the area of the two cultures, of which 244 are in the Gârla Mare area. Clay miniature

axe An axe ( sometimes ax in American English; see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape, split and cut wood, to harvest timber, as a weapon, and as a ceremonial or heraldic symbol. The axe has ma ...

s (axes, hammers or double axes) belonging to this period have been found.

Labrys ''Labrys'' ( gr, , lábrus) is, according to Plutarch (''Quaestiones Graecae'' 2.302a), the Lydian word for the double-bitted axe. In Greek it was called (''pélekus''). The Ancient Greek plural of ''labrys'' is ''labryes'' (). Etymology P ...

double-axes are frequently found in the

Cretan Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, an ...

and

Mycenae Mycenae ( ; grc, Μυκῆναι or , ''Mykē̂nai'' or ''Mykḗnē'') is an archaeological site near Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located about south-west of Athens; north of Argos; and south of Corinth. ...

an worlds, where they occur most often in complex

ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...

s and tombs (for example the ''Tomb of double ax of

Knossos Knossos (also Cnossos, both pronounced ; grc, Κνωσός, Knōsós, ; Linear B: ''Ko-no-so'') is the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete and has been called Europe's oldest city. Settled as early as the Neolithic period, the na ...

''). In the

an context, the labrys has a wide range of sizes, from miniature forms to giant forms that measure 1.20 meters. However, the labrys site is frequently associated with the moon and can be a symbol of a goddess of vegetation, the forerunner of Demeter, who, on Mycenaean seals, is found under a tree. The goddess has an ax in her hand and receives as gifts

poppies Poppies can refer to: *Poppy, a flowering plant * The Poppies (disambiguation) - multiple uses *'' Poppies (film)'' - Children's BBC remembrance animation *"Poppies", a song by Patti Smith Group from their 1976 album '' Radio Ethiopia'' *"Poppies", ...

and fruits.

Gallery

File:Diadema d'oro.jpg File:Età del ferro iniziale, tesoro di hinova, bracciale e frammenti vari, XII sec. ac..JPG File:Età del ferro iniziale, tesoro di hinova, perle d'oro ottaedriche, XII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Spoked wheel from Arokalja.jpg File:Urnenveld helm.jpg File:Remetea mare situla eia mus banat.jpg File:Orastie Celtic cauldron.JPG File:Lapus vessel lb 1 mnir.jpg File:Lapus Group pottery 1.jpg File:Gava culture pottery, Teleac hillfort, Romania.jpg File:Sword hilt Dacia (Covoru, Brasov).jpg File:Swords Bronze Age Dacia.jpg File:Sarasau hoard lb mnir.jpg File:Golden coils Prehistoric Maramures (Dacia).jpg File:Wietenberg gold bracelet 1.jpg File:Carna figurine lb mnir.jpg File:Romania, possibly Cirna, Middle Bronze Age - Large Bowl - 1993.229 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg File:Alba Iulia National Museum of the Union 2011 - Late Bronze Age Vessels and Bronze Objects.JPG File:Cornesti-Iacuri.jpg File:Età del bronzo, diademi in oro da galesu, 1400-1200 ac. 03.JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di lancia o pugnale d'oro, XVII sec. ac. 05.JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di pugnale d'oro, da macin, XVII-XVI sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di lancia o pugnale d'oro, XVII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Tesoro di sacosu mare, braccialetto con voluta, XIII-XII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Wietenberg culture axes at National Museum of Transylvanian History 2007.jpg File:Alba Iulia National Museum of the Union 2011 - Pottery, Bone and Bronze Artefacts of the Wietenberg Culture.JPG File:Decorative motifs bracelets Pipea Biia and Karasz Dacia.jpg File:Bronze sheet belt (Dacia).JPG File:Età del bronzo, parure da sarata monteoru, xvi-xiv sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo finale-inizio età del ferro, vaso d'oro da biia, XIII-XII sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, tesoro di smig, parure, XVII-XVI sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, tesoro di sacuieni, disco-falera, 1500-1400 a.c..JPG

Notes

References

* Cristian Ștefan - ''Epoca Bronzului'' * Ioan Aurel-Pop, Ioan Bolovan, coordinatings - ''Istoria ilustrată a României''

External links

* https://web.archive.org/web/20110913223325/http://prehistoire.e-monsite.com/rubrique%2Cepoca-bronzului-ii%2C1112106.html * https://web.archive.org/web/20120317115249/http://www.archaeology.ro/imc_verb.htm * https://web.archive.org/web/20110927235724/http://www.archaeology.ro/imc_mont.htm {{DEFAULTSORT:Bronze Age In Romania Bronze Age Europe by country Prehistory of Romania Archaeology of Romania