Battle of Hampton Roads

The Battle of Hampton Roads, also referred to as the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and ''Virginia'' (rebuilt and renamed from the USS ''Merrimack'') or the Battle of Ironclads, was a naval battle during the American Civil War.

It was fought over two days, March 8–9, 1862, in Hampton Roads, a roadstead in Virginia where the Elizabeth and Nansemond rivers meet the James River just before it enters Chesapeake Bay adjacent to the city of Norfolk. The battle was a part of the effort of the Confederacy to break the Union blockade, which had cut off Virginia's largest cities and major industrial centers, Norfolk and Richmond, from international trade.Musicant 1995, pp. 134–178; Anderson 1962, pp. 71–77; Tucker 2006, p. 151.

This battle has major significance because it was the first meeting in combat of ironclad warships, and . The Confederate fleet consisted of the ironclad ram ''Virginia'' (built from the remnants of the burned steam frigate , newest warship for the United States Navy / Union Navy) and several supporting vessels. On the first day of battle, they were opposed by several conventional, wooden-hulled ships of the Union Navy.

On that day, ''Virginia'' was able to destroy two ships of the federal flotilla, and , and was about to attack a third, , which had run aground. However, the action was halted by darkness and falling tide, so ''Virginia'' retired to take care of her few wounded—which included her captain, Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan—and repair her minimal battle damage.

Determined to complete the destruction of ''Minnesota'', Catesby ap Roger Jones, acting as captain in Buchanan's absence, returned the ship to the fray the next morning, March 9. During the night, however, the ironclad ''Monitor'' had arrived and had taken a position to defend ''Minnesota''. When ''Virginia'' approached, ''Monitor'' intercepted her. The two ironclads fought for about three hours, with neither being able to inflict significant damage on the other. The duel ended indecisively, ''Virginia'' returning to her home at the Gosport Navy Yard for repairs and strengthening, and ''Monitor'' to her station defending ''Minnesota''. The ships did not fight again, and the blockade remained in place.

The battle received worldwide attention, and it had immediate effects on navies around the world. The preeminent naval powers, Great Britain and France, halted further construction of wooden-hulled ships, and others followed suit. Although Britain and France had been engaged in an iron-clad arms race since the 1830s, the Battle of Hampton Roads signaled a new age of naval warfare had arrived for the whole world.Deogracias, Alan J. "The Battle of Hampton Roads: A Revolution in Military Affairs.” U.S. Army Command, 6 June 2003.
A new type of warship, monitor, was produced on the principle of the original. The use of a small number of very heavy guns, mounted so that they could fire in all directions, was first demonstrated by ''Monitor'' but soon became standard in warships of all types. Shipbuilders also incorporated rams into the designs of warship hulls for the rest of the century.

Background

Military situation

The blockade at Norfolk

On April 19, 1861, shortly after the outbreak of hostilities at Charleston Harbor, US President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of ports in the seceded states. On April 27, after Virginia and North Carolina had also passed ordinances of secession, the blockade was extended to include their ports also. Even before the extension, local troops seized the Norfolk area and threatened the Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth. The commandant there, Captain Charles S. McCauley, though loyal to the Union, was immobilized by advice he received from his subordinate officers, most of whom were in favor of secession. Although he had orders from (Union) Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to move his ships to Northern ports, he refused to act until April 20, when he gave orders to scuttle the ships in the yard and destroy its facilities.

At least nine ships were burned, among them the screw frigate . One (the old frigate ) was towed away successfully. ''Merrimack'' burned only to the waterline, however, and her engines were more or less intact. The destruction of the navy yard was mostly ineffective; in particular, the large drydock there was relatively undamaged and soon could be restored. Without firing a shot, the advocates of secession had gained for the South its largest navy yard, as well as the hull and engines of what would be in time its most famous warship. They had also seized more than a thousand heavy guns, plus gun carriages and large quantities of gunpowder.

With Norfolk and its navy yard in Portsmouth, the Confederacy controlled the southern side of Hampton Roads. To prevent Union warships from attacking the yard, the Confederates set up batteries at Sewell's Point and Craney Island, at the juncture of the Elizabeth River with the James. (See map.) The Union retained possession of Fort Monroe, at Old Point Comfort on the Virginia Peninsula. They also held a small man-made island known as the Rip Raps, on the far side of the channel opposite Fort Monroe, and on this island they completed another fort, named Fort Wool. With Fort Monroe went control of the lower Peninsula as far as Newport News.

Forts Monroe and Wool gave the Union forces control of the entrance to Hampton Roads. The blockade, initiated on April 30, 1861, cut off Norfolk and Richmond from the sea almost completely. To further the blockade, the Union Navy stationed some of its most powerful warships in the roadstead. There, they were under the shelter of the shore-based guns of Fort Monroe and the batteries at Hampton and Newport News and out of the range of the guns at Sewell's Point and Craney Island. For most of the first year of the war, the Confederacy could do little to oppose or dislodge them.

Birth of the ironclads

When steam propulsion began to be applied to warships, naval constructors renewed their interest in armor for their vessels. Experiments had been tried with armor during the Crimean War (1853–1856), just prior to the American Civil War, and the British and French navies had each built armored ships and were planning to build others. In 1860 the French Navy commissioned , the world's first ocean-going ironclad warship. Great Britain followed a year later with , the world's first armor-plated iron-hulled warship. The use of armor remained controversial, however, and the United States Navy was generally reluctant to embrace the new technology.

CSS ''Virginia''

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen R. Mallory was an early enthusiast for the advantages of armor. As he looked upon it, the Confederacy could not match the industrial North in numbers of ships at sea, so they would have to compete by building vessels that individually outclassed those of the Union. Armor would provide the edge. Mallory gathered about himself a group of men who could put his vision into practice, among them John M. Brooke, John L. Porter, and William P. Williamson.

When Mallory's men searched the South for factories that could build engines to drive the heavy ships that he wanted, they found no place to do it immediately. At the best facility, the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, building engines from scratch would take at least a year. Upon learning this, Williamson suggested taking the engines from the hulk of ''Merrimack'', recently raised from the bed of the Elizabeth River. His colleagues promptly accepted his suggestion and expanded it, proposing that the design of their projected ironclad be adapted to the hull. Porter produced the revised plans, which were submitted to Mallory for approval.

On July 11, 1861, the new design was accepted, and work began almost immediately. The burned-out hull was towed into the graving dock that the Union Navy had failed to destroy. During the subsequent conversion process, the plans developed further, incorporating an iron ram fitted to the prow. The re-modeled ship's offense, in addition to the ram, consisted of 10 guns: six smooth-bore Dahlgrens, two and two Brooke rifles. Trials showed that these rifles firing solid shot would pierce up to eight inches of armor plating.

The Tredegar Iron works could produce both solid shot and shell, and since it was believed that ''Virginia'' would face only wooden ships, she was given only the explosive shell.Nelson, ''Reign of Iron'', 2004 The armor plating, originally meant to be thick, was replaced by double plates, each thick, backed by of iron and pine. The armor was pierced for 14 gunports: four on each broadside, three forward, and three aft. The revisions, together with the usual problems associated with the transportation system of the South, resulted in delays that pushed out the launch date until February 3, 1862, and she was not commissioned until February 17, bearing the name .

USS ''Monitor''

Intelligence that the Confederates were working to develop an ironclad caused consternation for the Union, but Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles waited for Congress to meet to request permission to consider building armored vessels; Congress gave this permission on August 3, 1861. Welles appointed a commission, which became known as the Ironclad Board, of three senior naval officers to choose among the designs that were submitted for consideration. The three men were Captains Joseph Smith, Hiram Paulding, and Commander Charles Henry Davis. The board considered seventeen designs, and chose to support three. The first of the three to be completed, even though she was by far the most radical in design, was Swedish engineer and inventor John Ericsson's .

Ericsson's ''Monitor'', which was built at Ericsson's yard on the East River in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, incorporated new and striking design features, the most significant of which were her armor and armament. Instead of the large numbers of guns of rather small bore that had characterized warships in the past, Ericsson opted for only two guns of large caliber; he wanted to use guns, but had to settle for Dahlgren guns when the larger size were unavailable. These were mounted in a cylindrical turret, in diameter, high, covered with iron thick. The whole rotated on a central spindle, and was moved by a steam engine that could be controlled by one man. Ericsson was afraid that using the full 30 pounds of black powder to fire the huge cannon would raise the risk of an explosion in the turret. He demanded that a charge of 15 pounds be used to lessen this possibility.

As with ''Virginia'', trials found that a full charge would pierce armor plate, a finding that would have affected the outcome of the battle. A serious flaw in the design was the pilot house from which the ship would be conned, a small structure forward of the turret on the main deck. Its presence meant that the guns could not fire directly forward, and it was isolated from other activities on the ship. Despite the late start and the novelty of construction, ''Monitor'' was actually completed a few days before her counterpart ''Virginia'', but the Confederates activated ''Virginia'' first.

Opposing forces

Union

Confederate

Battle

Command

The Confederate chain of command was anomalous. Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones had directed much of the conversion of ''Merrimack'' to ''Virginia'', and he was disappointed when he was not named her captain. Jones was retained aboard ''Virginia'', but only as her executive officer. Ordinarily, the ship would have been led by a captain of the Confederate States Navy, to be determined by the rigid seniority system that was in place. Secretary Mallory wanted the aggressive Franklin Buchanan, but at least two other captains had greater seniority and had applied for the post. Mallory evaded the issue by appointing Buchanan, head of the Office of Orders and Detail, flag officer in charge of the defenses of Norfolk and the James River. As such, he could control the movements of ''Virginia''. Technically, therefore, the ship went into the battle without a captain.

On the Union side, command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron was held by Flag Officer Louis M. Goldsborough. He had devised a plan for his frigates to engage ''Virginia'', hoping to trap her in their crossfire. In the event, his plan broke down completely when four of the ships ran aground (one of them intentionally) in the confined waters of the roadstead. On the day of battle, Goldsborough was absent with the ships cooperating with the Burnside Expedition in North Carolina. In his absence, leadership fell to his second in command, Captain John Marston of . As ''Roanoke'' was one of the ships that ran aground, Marston was unable to materially influence the battle, and his participation is often disregarded. Most accounts emphasize the contribution of the captain of ''Monitor'', John L. Worden, to the neglect of others.

March 8: ''Virginia'' wreaks havoc on wooden Union warships

The battle began when the large and unwieldy CSS ''Virginia'' steamed into Hampton Roads on the morning of March 8, 1862. Captain Buchanan intended to attack as soon as possible. ''Virginia'' was accompanied from her moorings on the Elizabeth River by and , and was joined at Hampton Roads by the James River Squadron, , , and . When they were passing the Union batteries at Newport News, ''Patrick Henry'' was temporarily disabled by a shot in her boiler that killed four of her crew. After repairs, she returned and rejoined the others.

At this time, the Union Navy had five warships in the roadstead, in addition to several support vessels. The sloop-of-war and frigate were anchored in the channel near Newport News. The sail frigate and the steam frigates and were near Fort Monroe, along with the storeship . The latter three got under way as soon as they saw ''Virginia'' approaching, but all soon ran aground. ''St. Lawrence'' and ''Roanoke'' took no further important part in the battle.Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 98.

''Virginia'' headed directly for the Union squadron. The battle opened when Union tug ''Zouave'' fired on the advancing enemy, and ''Beaufort'' replied. This preliminary skirmishing had no effect. ''Virginia'' did not open fire until she was within easy range of ''Cumberland''. Return fire from ''Cumberland'' and ''Congress'' bounced off the iron plates without penetrating, although later some of ''Cumberland''s gunfire lightly damaged ''Virginia''.

''Virginia'' rammed ''Cumberland'' below the waterline and she sank rapidly, "gallantly fighting her guns as long as they were above water," according to Buchanan. She took 121 seamen down with her; those wounded brought the casualty total to nearly 150.

Ramming ''Cumberland'' nearly resulted in the sinking of ''Virginia'' as well. ''Virginia''s bow ram got stuck in the enemy ship's hull, and as ''Cumberland'' listed and began to go down, she almost pulled ''Virginia'' under with her. At the time the vessels were locked, one of ''Cumberland's'' anchors was hanging directly above the foredeck of ''Virginia''. Had it come loose, the two ships might have gone down together. ''Virginia'' broke free, however, her ram breaking off as she backed away.

Buchanan next turned ''Virginia'' on ''Congress''. Seeing what had happened to ''Cumberland'', Lieutenant Joseph B. Smith, captain of ''Congress'', ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. By this time, the James River Squadron, commanded by John Randolph Tucker, had arrived and joined ''Virginia'' in the attack on ''Congress''. After an hour of unequal combat, the badly damaged ''Congress'' surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''. In retaliation, Buchanan ordered ''Congress'' fired upon with hot shot, cannonballs heated red-hot. ''Congress'' caught fire and burned throughout the rest of the day. Near midnight, the flames reached her magazine and she exploded and sank, stern first. Personnel losses included 110 killed or missing and presumed drowned. Another 26 were wounded, of whom ten died within days.

Although she had not suffered anything like the damage she had inflicted, ''Virginia'' was not completely unscathed. Shots from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and Union troops ashore had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed. Two of her guns were disabled and several armor plates had been loosened. Two of her crew were killed, and more were wounded. One of the wounded was Captain Buchanan, whose left thigh was pierced by a rifle shot.

Meanwhile, the James River Squadron had turned its attention to ''Minnesota'', which had left Fort Monroe to join in the battle and had run aground. After ''Virginia'' had dealt with the surrender of ''Congress'', she joined the James River Squadron despite her damage. Because of her deep draft and the falling tide, however, ''Virginia'' was unable to get close enough to be effective, and darkness prevented the rest of the squadron from aiming their guns to any effect. The attack was therefore suspended. ''Virginia'' left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the task. She retreated into the safety of Confederate-controlled waters off Sewell's Point for the night, but had killed 250 enemy sailors and had lost two. The Union had lost two ships and three were aground.

The United States Navy's greatest defeat (and would remain so until World War II) caused panic in Washington. As Lincoln's Cabinet met to discuss the disaster, the frightened Secretary of War Edwin Stanton told the others that ''Virginia'' might attack East coast cities, and even shell the White House before the meeting ended. Welles assured his colleagues that they were safe as the ship could not traverse the Potomac River. He added that the Union also had an ironclad, and that it was heading to meet ''Virginia''.

March 9: ''Monitor'' engages ''Virginia''

Both sides used the respite to prepare for the next day. ''Virginia'' put her wounded ashore and underwent temporary repairs. Captain Buchanan was among the wounded, so command on the second day fell to his executive officer, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. Jones proved to be no less aggressive than the man he replaced. While ''Virginia'' was being prepared for renewal of the battle, and while ''Congress'' was still ablaze, ''Monitor'', commanded by Lieutenant John L. Worden, arrived in Hampton Roads. The Union ironclad had been rushed to Hampton Roads in hopes of protecting the Union fleet and preventing ''Virginia'' from threatening Union cities. Captain Worden was informed that his primary task was to protect ''Minnesota'', so ''Monitor'' took up a position near the grounded ''Minnesota'' and waited. "All on board felt we had a friend that would stand by us in our hour of trial," wrote Captain Gershom Jacques Van Brunt, ''Minnesota''s commander, in his official report the day after the engagement.

The next morning, at dawn on March 9, 1862, ''Virginia'' left her anchorage at Sewell's Point and moved to attack ''Minnesota'', still aground. She was followed by the three ships of the James River Squadron. They found their course blocked, however, by the newly arrived ''Monitor''. At first, Jones believed the strange craft—which one Confederate sailor mocked as "a cheese on a raft"—to be a boiler being towed from the ''Minnesota'', not realizing the nature of his opponent. Soon, however, it was apparent that he had no choice but to fight her. The first shot of the engagement was fired at ''Monitor'' by ''Virginia''. The shot flew past ''Monitor'' and struck ''Minnesota'', which answered with a broadside; this began what would be a lengthy engagement. "Again, all hands were called to quarters, and when she approached within a mile of us I opened upon her with my stern guns and made a signal to the ''Monitor'' to attack the enemy," Van Brunt added.

After fighting for hours, mostly at close range, neither could overcome the other. The armor of both ships proved adequate. In part, this was because each was handicapped in her offensive capabilities. Buchanan, in ''Virginia'', had not expected to fight another armored vessel, so his guns were supplied only with shell rather than armor-piercing shot. ''Monitor''s guns were used with the standard service charge of only of powder, which did not give the projectile sufficient momentum to penetrate her opponent's armor. Tests conducted after the battle showed that the Dahlgren guns could be operated safely and efficiently with charges of as much as . However, despite this, as the two Ironclads circled each other during the fight, the ''Monitor'' was about to penetrate the ''Virginia''’s armor, but a misfiring of its weapons caused it to lose the advantage. At 10 AM that morning, the ''Virginia'' grounded. The ''Monitor'' opened fire on its vulnerable adversary, yet the ''Virginia'' was able to scrape off the shore and rejoin the fight.

Later during the battle, Acting Master Louis N. Stodder and officers Stimers and Truscott were inside the gun turret, discussing the course of action. Stodder was leaning against the turret's inside wall when it took a direct hit. Holzer, 2013, p. 13 Stodder was knocked unconscious and taken below, where it took him an hour to regain consciousness. Stodder thus became the first man injured during the battle. He was replaced by Stimers.

The battle finally ceased when a shell from ''Virginia'' struck the pilot house of ''Monitor'' and exploded, driving fragments of paint and iron through the viewing slits into Worden's eyes and temporarily blinding him. As no one else could see to command the ship, ''Monitor'' was forced to draw off. The executive officer, Lieutenant Samuel Dana Greene, took over, and ''Monitor'' returned to the fight. In the period of command confusion, however, the crew of ''Virginia'' believed that their opponent had withdrawn. Although ''Minnesota'' was still aground, the falling tide meant that she was out of reach. Furthermore, ''Virginia'' had suffered enough damage to require extensive repair. Convinced that his ship had won the day, Jones ordered her back to Norfolk. At about this time, ''Monitor'' returned, only to discover her opponent apparently giving up the fight. Convinced that ''Virginia'' was quitting, with orders only to protect ''Minnesota'' and not to risk his ship unnecessarily, Greene did not pursue. Thus, each side misinterpreted the moves of the other, and as a result each claimed victory.

Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory wrote to Confederate President Davis of the action:

The conduct of the Officers and men of the squadron … reflects unfading honor upon themselves and upon the Navy. The report will be read with deep interest, and its details will not fail to rouse the ardor and nerve the arms of our gallant seamen.
It will be remembered that the ''Virginia'' was a novelty in naval architecture, wholly unlike any ship that ever floated; that her heaviest guns were equal novelties in ordnance; that her motive power and obedience to her helm were untried, and her officers and crew strangers, comparatively, to the ship and to each other; and yet, under all these disadvantages, the dashing courage and consummate professional ability of Flag Officer Buchanan and his associates achieved the most remarkable victory which naval annals record.

In Washington, belief that ''Monitor'' had vanquished ''Virginia'' was so strong that Worden and his men were awarded the thanks of Congress:

Resolved . . . That the thanks of Congress and the American people are due and are hereby tendered to Lieutenant J. L. Worden, of the United States Navy, and to the officers and men of the ironclad gunboat ''Monitor'', under his command, for the skill and gallantry exhibited by them in the remarkable battle between the ''Monitor'' and the rebel ironclad steamer ''Merrimack''.

During the two-day engagement, USS ''Minnesota'' shot off 78 rounds of 10-inch solid shot; 67 rounds of 10-inch shells with 15-second fuse; 169 rounds of 9-inch solid shot; 180 9-inch shells with 15-second fuse; 35 8-inch shells with 15-second fuse and 5,567.5 pounds of service powder. Three crew members, Alexander Winslow, Henry Smith and Dennis Harrington were killed during the battle and 16 were wounded. One of ''Monitor''s crew, Quartermaster Peter Williams, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the battle.

Spring 1862—a standoff at Hampton Roads

''Virginia'' remained in drydock for almost a month, getting repairs for battle damage as well as minor modifications to improve her performance. On April 4, she was able to leave drydock. Buchanan, still recovering from his wound, had hoped that Catesby Jones would be picked to succeed him, and most observers believed that Jones's performance during the battle was outstanding. The seniority system for promotion in the Navy scuttled his chances, however, and the post went to the 67-year-old Commodore Josiah Tattnall III. ''Monitor'', not severely damaged, remained on duty. Like his antagonist Jones, Greene was deemed too young to remain as captain; the day after the battle, he was replaced with Lieutenant Thomas Oliver Selfridge Jr. Two days later, Selfridge was in turn relieved by Lieutenant William Nicholson Jeffers.

By late March, the Union blockade fleet had been augmented by hastily refitted civilian ships, including the powerful SS ''Vanderbilt'', , SS ''Illinois'', and SS ''Ericsson''. These had been outfitted with rams and some iron plating. By late April, the new ironclads USRC ''E. A. Stevens'' and had also joined the blockade.

Each side considered how best to eliminate the threat posed by its opponent, and after ''Virginia'' returned each side tried to goad the other into attacking under unfavorable circumstances. Both captains declined the opportunity to fight in waters not of their own choosing; Jeffers in particular was under positive orders not to risk his ship. Consequently, each vessel spent the next month in what amounted to posturing. Not only did the two ships not fight each other, neither ship ever fought again after March 9.

Destruction of the combatants

The end came first for ''Virginia''. Because the blockade was unbroken, Norfolk was of little strategic use to the Confederacy, and preliminary plans were laid to move the ship up the James River to the vicinity of Norfolk. Before adequate preparations could be made, the Confederate Army under Major General Benjamin Huger abandoned the city on May 9, without consulting anyone from the Navy. ''Virginia''s draft was too great to permit her to pass up the river, which had a depth of only , and then only under favorable circumstances. She was trapped and could only be captured or sunk by the Union Navy. Rather than allow either, Tatnall decided to destroy his own ship. He had her towed down to Craney Island in Portsmouth, where the gang were taken ashore, and then she was set afire. She burned through the rest of the day and most of the following night; shortly before dawn, the flames reached her magazine, and she blew up.

''Monitor'' likewise did not survive the year. She was ordered to Beaufort, North Carolina, on Christmas Day, to take part in the blockade there. While she was being towed down the coast (under command of her fourth captain, Commander John P. Bankhead), the wind increased and with it the waves; with no high sides, the ''Monitor'' took on water. Soon the water in the hold gained on the pumps, and then put out the fires in her engines. The order was given to abandon ship; most men were rescued by , but 16 went down with her when she sank in the early hours of December 31, 1862.

The victor

The victory claims that were made by each side in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads, as both were based on misinterpretations of the opponent's behavior, have been dismissed by present-day historians. They agree that the result of the ''Monitor''–''Virginia'' encounter was not a victory for either side. As the combat between ironclads was the primary significance of the battle, the general verdict is that the overall result was a draw. All would acknowledge that the Southern fleet inflicted far more damage than it received, which would ordinarily imply that they had gained a tactical victory. Compared to other Civil War battles, the loss of men and ships for the Union Navy would be considered a clear defeat. On the other hand, the blockade was not seriously threatened, so the entire battle can be regarded as an assault that ultimately failed.

However, initially after the Battle of Hampton Roads, both the Confederate and Union media claimed victory for their own sides. A headline in a Boston newspaper the day after the battle read "The Merrimac Driven back by the Steamer!", implying a Union victory, while Confederate media focused on their original success against wooden Union ships. Despite the battle ending in a stalemate, it was seen by both sides as an opportunity to raise war-time morale, especially since the ironclad ships were an exciting naval innovation that intrigued citizens.

Evaluation of the strategic results is likewise disputed. The blockade was maintained, even strengthened, and ''Virginia'' was bottled up in Hampton Roads. Because a decisive Confederate weapon was negated, some have concluded that the Union could claim a strategic victory. Confederate advocates can counter, however, by arguing that ''Virginia'' had a military significance larger than the blockade, which was only a small part of the war in Tidewater Virginia. Her mere presence was sufficient to close the James River to Federal incursions. She also imposed other constraints on the Peninsula Campaign then being mounted by the Union Army under General George B. McClellan, who worried that she could interfere with his positions on the York River. Although his fears were baseless, they continued to affect the movements of his army until ''Virginia'' was destroyed.

Impact upon naval warfare

Both days of the battle attracted attention from almost all the world's navies. USS ''Monitor'' became the prototype for the monitor warship type. She thus became the first of two ships whose names were applied to entire classes of their successors, the other being . Many more were built, including river monitors, and they played key roles in Civil War battles on the Mississippi and James rivers.

The US immediately started the construction of ten more monitors based on Ericsson's original larger plan, known as the s. More than 20 additional monitors were built by the Union by the end of the war. However, while the design proved exceptionally well-suited for river combat, the low profile and heavy turret caused poor seaworthiness in rough waters. Russia, fearing that the American Civil War would spill into Russian Alaska, launched ten sister ships, as soon as Ericsson's plans reached St. Petersburg. What followed has been described as ''"Monitor mania"''. The revolving turret later inspired similar designs for future warships, which eventually became the modern battleship.

The vulnerability of wooden hulls to armored ships was noted particularly in Britain and France, where the wisdom of the planned conversion of the battle fleet to armor was given a powerful demonstration. Another feature that was emulated was not so successful. Impressed by the ease with which ''Virginia'' had sunk ''Cumberland'', naval architects began to incorporate rams

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