Bahrain–United Kingdom relations
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Bilateral relations exist between
Kingdom of Bahrain Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ad ...
and the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. Bahrain has an embassy in London and the United Kingdom is one of only four European countries to maintain an embassy in
Manama Manama ( ar, المنامة ', Bahrani pronunciation: ) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 200,000 people as of 2020. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very di ...
. Bahrain gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1971 and has since maintained strong diplomatic, military and trade relations.


History


Early treaties

At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
, then the dominant power in the region, was attempting to end piracy in the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bod ...
to secure maritime trading routes to its
East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and South ...
in the
Indies The East Indies (or simply the Indies), is a term used in historical narratives of the Age of Discovery. The Indies refers to various lands in the East or the Eastern hemisphere, particularly the islands and mainlands found in and around ...
. In 1805, the ruling
House of Khalifa The House of Khalifa ( ar, آل خليفة, translit=Āl Khalīfah) is the ruling family of the Kingdom of Bahrain. The Al Khalifas profess Sunni Islam and belong to the Anizah tribe, some members of this tribe joined the Utub alliance which m ...
offered to support Britain against Persians in exchange for occasional help by British gunships. Their request was backed by the British Resident in
Muscat Muscat ( ar, مَسْقَط, ) is the capital and most populated city in Oman. It is the seat of the Governorate of Muscat. According to the National Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI), the total population of Muscat Governorate was ...
, but the
Government of India The Government of India (ISO: ; often abbreviated as GoI), known as the Union Government or Central Government but often simply as the Centre, is the national government of the Republic of India, a federal democracy located in South Asia, ...
rejected it. In 1816, the British Political Resident, William Bruce signed an unofficial agreement with Al Khalifa in which Britain was to remain neutral in the war between
Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
and Bahrain. Four years later, Bruce refused to guarantee a truce agreement between Bahrain and Oman. In 1820, Britain signed the General Maritime Treaty with tribal chiefs of the Persian Gulf, including Al Khalifa (at their request). By signing this treaty, Britain recognised Al Khalifa as "legitimate" rulers of Bahrain. In 1822, Britain peacefully prevented an imminent war between Bahrain and Oman. Between 1820 and 1850, Al Khalifa repeatedly tried to persuade British authorities to provide full protection to Bahrain against external threats, but without avail. Britain wanted Bahrain to remain an independent state. The situation changed in 1859–60, when the Khalifa ruler appealed to the Persians and Ottomans to provide protection, and in 1861 blockaded Al-Hasa, a coastal oasis in
Eastern Arabia Eastern Arabia, historically known as al-Baḥrayn ( ar, البحرين) until the 18th century, is a region stretched from Basra to Khasab along the Persian Gulf coast and included parts of modern-day Bahrain, Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Unite ...
. This prompted the British in 1861 to force the ruler to sign a Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship; under its terms the ruler of Bahrain was not to engage in "prosecution of war, piracy and slavery at sea" and Britain was to provide maritime protection. The treaty also recognised the Khalifa ruler as an "independent ruler". Six years later, in 1867–8, the British navy intervened after a Bahraini attack on Qatar. After two years, in 1869, they intervened again to end an internal struggle over power, and appointed Shaikh
Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa (1848–9 December 1932) was the ruler of Bahrain from 1869 until his death. His title was Hakim of Bahrain. He is one of the longest reigning monarchs of the region, a reign lasting 63 years. He was forced by the Brit ...
, then aged 21 as ruler of Bahrain. In subsequent years, the British exercised increasing control over Shaikh Isa's communications with foreign powers, especially the Ottomans, which had claims over Bahrain and Qatar. Between 1878 and 1880, the British failed to protect Bahrain against pirates operating from lands claimed by the Ottomans. They also prevented Shaikh Isa from defending
Zubarah Zubarah ( ar, الزبارة), also referred to as Al Zubarah or Az Zubarah, is a ruined and ancient fort located on the north western coast of the Qatar peninsula in the Al Shamal municipality, about 105 km from the Qatari capital of Doha. ...
, a center of trade and
pearl fishing Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting was prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan for thousands of years. On the ...
sited midway between the Strait of Hormuz and the west arm of the Gulf, against a land attack, in order to avoid a confrontation with the Ottomans, who supported the Al-Abdulla (a branch of Al Khalifa which had been banished from Bahrain after a feud over power). The increasing Ottoman influence in the region threatened the ''status quo'' in Bahrain and prompted Colonel E.C. Ross, the British Resident, to sign a new treaty with Bahrain on 22 December 1880. The treaty prohibited the ruler of Bahrain from negotiating, signing treaties or accepting any form of diplomatic representation with foreign powers without British consent, with the exception of "customary friendly correspondence .. of minor importance". It did not refer to Bahrain's independence. Fearing the increasing Ottoman activity and French influence in the region, Britain signed a new treaty with Bahrain in 1892 which further limited the foreign relations of the ruler by prohibiting disposal of territory to any foreign power other than Britain. It also prohibited the minor communications exempted by the 1880 treaty. The treaties of 1880 and 1892 effectively turned Bahrain into a British protectorate, giving the British control over defence and foreign relations. The ruler was also to accept British "advice" regarding internal matters. During this period, Bahrain was the center of British commercial operations in the region. Between 1829 and 1904, the Persian Gulf Residency appointed an Assistant post in Bahrain. It was occupied by natives until 1900 when a Britisher was assigned to the post to accommodate the increase in British trade and attract British companies. The British were mainly concerned with their commercial interests and paid little attention to Bahraini internal affairs. Britain is credited by historians for the stability and growth Bahrain experienced in the latter half of the 19th century.


Increasing British protection

In 1903,
Lord Curzon George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, (11 January 1859 – 20 March 1925), styled Lord Curzon of Kedleston between 1898 and 1911 and then Earl Curzon of Kedleston between 1911 and 1921, was a British Conservative statesman ...
, the
Viceroy of India The Governor-General of India (1773–1950, from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, commonly shortened to Viceroy of India) was the representative of the monarch of the United Kingdom and after Indian independence in 19 ...
, visited Bahrain and highlighted the need to reform the customs – which were in a state of chaos – by appointing a British director. When Shaikh Isa resisted what he considered an interference, Curzon told him the British were persisting in their demands. Complaints about the customs had been made as early as 1885 and remained a popular topic for British officials until the implementation of the administrative reforms in the 1920s. Throughout this period, Shaikh Isa resisted British control over customs, in order to remain financially independent. In 1904, the post of British Assistant was elevated to British Political Agent. On 29 September, followers of Ali ibn Ahmed Al Khalifa, a nephew of Shaikh Isa, attacked clerks working for a German trading firm. Ali himself attacked the German trader. On 14 November, his followers attacked and severely injured several Persians. The Political Agent asked Shaikh Isa to punish the aggressors and compensate the victims, but Shaikh Isa refused. After failing to get justice in Bahrain, the victimised parties referred their cases to the German consul in the Persian port city of
Bushehr Bushehr, Booshehr or Bushire ( fa, بوشهر ; also romanised as ''Būshehr'', ''Bouchehr'', ''Buschir'' and ''Busehr''), also known as Bandar Bushehr ( fa, ; also romanised as ''Bandar Būshehr'' and ''Bandar-e Būshehr''), previously Antio ...
and the Persian Secretary for Foreign Affairs respectively. Fearing that these incidents would allow foreign powers to "gain an opening for assailing
he British He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
regime", Major
Percy Cox Major-General Sir Percy Zachariah Cox (20 November 1864 – 20 February 1937) was a British Indian Army officer and Colonial Office administrator in the Middle East. He was one of the major figures in the creation of the current Middle East. ...
, the Acting Political Resident in the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bod ...
visited Bahrain in a navy fleet on 30 November. Shaikh Isa agreed to punish those behind the attack on the German firm, but not those who attacked the Persians. After consultations with higher British authorities, Cox returned to Bahrain in a great show of force on 23 February 1905. He issued an ultimatum ending on 25 February. Cox demanded deporting Ali, compensating the Persians, prohibiting forced labour of foreigners, and adhering to advisories from the British Political Agent. He threatened to fire on the capital city of
Manama Manama ( ar, المنامة ', Bahrani pronunciation: ) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 200,000 people as of 2020. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very di ...
if Shaikh Isa did not comply. Shaikh Isa agreed to the demands on 26 February, after Cox had fired a few blank shots on the major port city of Manama. In secret, however, he allegedly forewarned Ali of his inevitable arrest. Finding that Ali was gone, Cox took the heir apparent, Shaikh Hamad, as hostage, imposed house arrest on Shaikh Isa and confiscated Ali's properties. He then arrested Jassim al-Mihza, the influential Sunni judge. Three days later, Cox was satisfied with the results as the population submitted to the British. Shaikh Hamad and al-Mihza were released and Shaikh Isa was freed from house arrest. Ali surrendered himself in July and was deported to British
Bombay Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second-m ...
in September. In January 1906, Cox extended the jurisdiction of the British Political Agent to Persians when he ruled that a Persian who was caught stealing from a British ship harboured in Bahrain fell under British jurisdiction. In April, the British further extended their jurisdiction to include Jews and native Christians after the former group complained of harassment over taxes by Shaikh Isa. According to one British official, all these judicial powers were "not authorized by any law". The full implications of these actions were not realised at first. Because all "foreigners" were placed under the British jurisdiction, an often-conflicted dual authority was created, one led by the ruler, the other by the British Political Agency. During the time, there was an increasing number of foreigners due to the pearl boom which was coupled with stability. At the same time, the term "foreigner" lacked a precise definition; both Shaikh Isa and the British claimed non-Bahraini Arabs and native-born ''
Baharnah The Baharna ( ar, بحارنة) are the indigenous Shia Muslim inhabitants of Bahrain who inhabited the area before the arrival of Sunni Muslim Arab tribes from Najd, particularly by Banu Utbah in the 18th century which the Bahraini royal fam ...
'' as their subjects. Shaikh Isa's motivations were political as well as financial, as he charged 10% of all legal fees. Shaikh Isa's reaction to this change was to postpone any reform to the customs which he thought of as "the darlings of British trade". The British attempted to use this atmosphere to their advantage; Captain F.B. Prideaux, the newly appointed Political Agent, had been developing plans for administrative reforms. Unlike other British officials, he did not suggest changes in the customs or internal authority of Al Khalifa. Instead, Prideaux proposed that reforms be focused on "ending local tyranny" in the form of forced labour, and judicial and financial corruption. His proposals were the basis of the Bahrain
Order in Council An Order-in-Council is a type of legislation in many countries, especially the Commonwealth realms. In the United Kingdom this legislation is formally made in the name of the monarch by and with the advice and consent of the Privy Council (''Kin ...
, a document issued in 1913 that secured the legal status of Britain in Bahrain. At first, these plans were rejected by Cox, who thought they were premature. British officials thought that by 1908 Shaikh Isa would be forced to accept reforms in the customs due to the expiration of
Banyan merchants Banyan merchants is an expression used widely in the Indian Ocean trade to refer to Indian merchants who are clearly distinguished from others, by their clothing, by their religious and cultural dietary choices, and by the manner in which they co ...
contracts. However, in January 1908, the customs revenue increased when Shaikh Isa appointed local officials.


Bahrain Order in Council and World War I

Before late 1907, the British had not openly declared Bahrain a formal protectorate; instead they considered it under their protection. The Foreign Office refused to use "strict terms" to define the status of Bahrain. But in private correspondents between British officials, the term "protectorate" was often used since 1890s. On 14 November 1907, the Government of India requested issuing an Order in Council for Bahrain in light of the growing British jurisdiction over foreigners. Rising foreign interests and trade in the region, especially those of Germans, was another important motivation. In the request, the Government of India acknowledged that the treaty of 1880 had turned Bahrain into "a sort of protectorate". In February 1908, the Foreign Office questioned whether administrative reforms could be carried out along with formally acknowledging the increased British jurisdiction over Bahrain, so that the latter might not provoke any hostile reactions from other foreign powers. In March, a committee headed by
John Morley John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923) was a British Liberal statesman, writer and newspaper editor. Initially, a journalist in the North of England and then editor of the newly Liberal-leani ...
, the
Secretary of State for India His (or Her) Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India, known for short as the India Secretary or the Indian Secretary, was the British Cabinet minister and the political head of the India Office responsible for the governance of th ...
, was formed. It concluded in its final report that Bahrain was in fact a British "visual Protectorate" (but did not see fit to declare it so publicly) and that the Order in Council should be issued following written consent from Shaikh Isa over the new status of British jurisdiction over foreigners. The report was approved in February 1909 and in addition to its recommendations, the Government of India was tasked on May with preparing a draft for the Order in Council. Shaikh Isa's consent was secured in July, however for various reasons, the draft was only submitted in June 1911. Further negotiations with Shiakh Isa and the Ottomans delayed the approval of the Order in Council until 12 August 1913. The Bahrain Order in Council (BOIC) was published in ''
The London Gazette ''The London Gazette'' is one of the official journals of record or government gazettes of the Government of the United Kingdom, and the most important among such official journals in the United Kingdom, in which certain statutory notices are ...
'' on 15 August. It provided legal cover for British jurisdiction over foreigners. It also limited the powers of the ruler and gave the Political Agent far reaching jurisdiction, including over religious law courts. John Marlowe stated that this had equated Bahrain's status with a British colony and the British Political Resident's power with that of a Colonial Governor. Littlefield wrote that the BOIC had made Bahrain "in all but name, a British colony" and that it aroused anti-British feelings. Six law courts were to be formed: the Chief Court (Muslims), the District Court (foreigners), the Joint Court (Bahrainis vs foreigners), al-Majlis al-Urfi (only when disputing parties agreed to refer to it), Salifa Court (concerned with pearl-diving) and Kazi's Court, to which cases could be referred from other courts. The applicable law was to be the law of British India with some amendments. However, the BOIC was suspended due to negotiations with Ottomans and the outbreak of the
First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. It was only put into effect in February 1919, announcing the start of the administrative reforms. A few months before the war, Bahrain granted Britain exclusive oil concessions. During the war, most Bahrainis were not supportive of the Allies, though they were at war with the Ottomans. The British thought this was due to British lack of attention toward oppression of native Bahrainis and suspension of reforms. These anti-British feelings were another reason for delaying implementation of the Order in Council until after the war. On the other hand, Shaikh Isa and his family, especially his younger son, Shaikh Abdulla, were loyal to the British. Shaikh Isa was given the Companion (CIE) and Knight Commander (KCIE) of the
Order of the Indian Empire The Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria on 1 January 1878. The Order includes members of three classes: #Knight Grand Commander (GCIE) #Knight Commander ( KCIE) #Companion ( CIE) No appoi ...
in 1915 and 1919 respectively. Shaikh Abdulla too was given CIE in 1915. The situation within Bahrain was calm, but the economic times were very hard; the customs income decreased by 80%, 5,000 died due to
plague Plague or The Plague may refer to: Agriculture, fauna, and medicine *Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis'' * An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural) * A pandemic caused by such a disease * A swarm of pe ...
in Manama and in the capital
Muharraq Muharraq ( ar, المحرق, al-Muḥarraq) is Bahrain's third largest city and served as its capital until 1932 when it was replaced by Manama. The population of Muharraq in 2012 was 176,583. The city is located on Muharraq Island. Bahrain Int ...
, and many others emigrated. Many were brought to the "brink of famine" due to India's ban on exporting rice and the subsequent increase in the price of staple commodities. Shaikh Isa responded in 1917 by borrowing from merchants, increasing the customs tax and dispossessing the
Shia Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, mo ...
Muslims, who were now the only non-Sunni group which did not enjoy British protection. At the time, Britain responded to external threats from the Wahhabis, Ottomans and Persians by tightening its grip over Bahrain. Ottomans and Persians had longstanding claims over the island. Following the end of the war, Persian media launched a campaign calling for a stop to the oppressive policies against their co-religious Shia. By the end of the war, the Persian Gulf became "a British lake", as all enemies of Britain were defeated and its control was therefore left unchallenged. This marked a shift in the British policy in Bahrain toward more intervention in the island's internal affairs. The main British naval base in the Persian Gulf region was moved to Bahrain in 1935 shortly after the start of large-scale oil production. In 1960, the United Kingdom put Bahrain's future to international arbitration and requested that the United Nations Secretary-General take on this responsibility. In 1970,
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
laid claim to Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf islands. The British Government then persuaded Iran to drop its claim to the island of Bahrain. However, in an agreement with the United Kingdom it agreed "not to pursue" its claims on Bahrain if its other claims were realised. In the same year, the United Nations reported that "the Bahrainis were virtually unanimous in wanting a fully independent sovereign state. The following
plebiscite A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of ...
saw Bahrainis confirm their Arab identity and independence from Britain. Bahrain was to declare itself fully independent on 15 August 1971. The British withdrew from Bahrain on 16 December 1971, making Bahrain an independent
emirate An emirate is a territory ruled by an emir, a title used by monarchs or high officeholders in the Muslim world. From a historical point of view, an emirate is a political-religious unit smaller than a caliphate. It can be considered equivalen ...
. In 2005, the British Prime Minister
Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British former politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He previously served as Leader of th ...
and
King of Bahrain The King of the Kingdom of Bahrain ( ar, ملك مملكة البحرين) is the monarch and head of state of Bahrain. The House of Khalifa has been the ruling family since 1783. Between 1783 and 1971, the Bahraini monarch held the title of Hak ...
Sheikh
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Hamad bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa ( ar, حمد بن عيسى بن سلمان آل خليفة '; 28 January 1950) is King of Bahrain since 14 February 2002, after ruling as Emir of Bahrain from 6 March 1999. He is the son of Isa bin Salm ...
released a joint statement saying that the two countries "have a strong, warm and longstanding relationship, rooted in our friendship over the years and in the 1971 Friendship Treaty". 7,000
Britons British people or Britons, also known colloquially as Brits, are the citizens of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the British Overseas Territories, and the Crown dependencies.: British nationality law governs mod ...
work in Bahrain making it the largest European community of
expatriates An expatriate (often shortened to expat) is a person who resides outside their native country. In common usage, the term often refers to educated professionals, skilled workers, or artists taking positions outside their home country, either ...
. There are also more than 2,000 Bahraini students studying in Britain.


Trade

In 2012, bilateral trade between the countries was worth £884 million. In mid-2021, British MPs called on the UK government to suspend all assistance and “secretive” multi-million pound funding programs to Bahrain amid the concerns of Britain being complicit in the human rights abuses taking place in Bahrain. In response to the brutal crackdown against prisoners in Bahrain’s Jau prison in April, UK MPs tabled a motion urging the British government to "suspend technical assistance" to oversight bodies in Bahrain.


Agreements

In 2006, Bahrain and the United Kingdom signed an agreement for the promotion of protection investments which was designed "to create favourable conditions for greater investment by nationals and companies of one State in the territory of the other State." On 13 June 2007, a co-operation agreement was signed between
Bahrain Stock Exchange The Bahrain Bourse, also called the Bahrain Stock Exchange (BSE), is the stock exchange of Bahrain. As at 2017, 42 companies were listed on the exchange. The exchange operates from Sunday to Thursday. Three indices track the Bahrain Bourse (BHB): ...
and the
London Stock Exchange London Stock Exchange (LSE) is a stock exchange in the City of London, England, United Kingdom. , the total market value of all companies trading on LSE was £3.9 trillion. Its current premises are situated in Paternoster Square close to St P ...
. On 11 October 2012, a defence co-operation agreement was signed between Bahrain and the United Kingdom to promote intelligence sharing, education, scientific and technical co-operation and joint training of military forces.


See also

* Foreign relations of United Kingdom *
Foreign relations of Bahrain Bahrain plays a modest, moderating role in regional politics and adheres to the views of the Arab League on Middle East peace and Palestinian rights. Since achieving independence in 1971, Bahrain has maintained friendly relations with most of it ...


Notes and references


Footnotes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Embassy of Bahrain in London
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bahrain-United Kingdom relations Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
Relations of colonizer and former colony