Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire or
the
Dual Monarchy
.svg/200px-Heraldic_Royal_Crown_(Common).svg.png)
Dual Monarchy in English-language sources, was a constitutional
union of the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire (the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in
the Imperial Council, or Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary
(
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
.svg/250px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Lands_of_the_Holy_Hungarian_Crown_(1915-1918,_1919-1946;_angels).svg.png)
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen or Transleithania) that existed
from 1867 to 1918, when it collapsed as a result of defeat in World
War I. The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of
1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary
consisted of two monarchies (
Austria
Austria and Hungary), and one autonomous
region: the
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown,
which negotiated the
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement (Nagodba) in
1868. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last
phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy.
Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were
co-equal. Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight,
but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective
states.
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was a multinational state and one of the world's great
powers at the time. Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was geographically the
second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at
621,538 km2 (239,977 sq mi),[6] and the third-most
populous (after Russia and the German Empire). The
Empire
Empire built up the
fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the
United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.[7] Austria-Hungary
also became the world's third largest manufacturer and exporter of
electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances and power
generation apparatus for power plants, after the
United States
United States and the
German Empire.[8][9]
After 1878,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military
and civilian rule[10] until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking
the
Bosnian crisis
.jpg/440px-Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_(1908).jpg)
Bosnian crisis among the other powers.[11] Sandžak/Raška, de
jure northern part of the Ottoman
Sanjak of Novi Pazar
.png/500px-Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar,_Ottoman_Balkans_(late_19th_century).png)
Sanjak of Novi Pazar (in modern-day
Montenegro
Montenegro and Serbia), was also under de facto joint occupation
during that period but the Austro-Hungarian army withdrew as part of
their annexation of Bosnia.[12] The annexation of Bosnia also led to
Islam
Islam being recognized as an official state religion due to Bosnia's
Muslim
Muslim population.[13]
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was one of the
Central Powers
Central Powers in World War I. It was
already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities
signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The Kingdom
of
Hungary
Hungary and the
First Austrian Republic
First Austrian Republic were treated as its
successors de jure, whereas the independence of the
West Slavs
West Slavs and
South Slavs
South Slavs of the
Empire
Empire as the First Czechoslovak Republic, the
Second Polish Republic
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Poland_(1928-1980).svg.png)
Second Polish Republic and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, respectively,
and most of the territorial demands of the
Kingdom of Romania
Kingdom of Romania were
also recognized by the victorious powers in 1920.
Contents
1 Structure and name
1.1 Creation
2 Politics and government
2.1 Government
2.2 Judicial system
2.2.1
Empire
Empire of Austria
2.2.2 Kingdom of Hungary
2.3 Public administration and local governments
2.3.1
Empire
Empire of Austria
2.3.2 Kingdom of Hungary
2.3.2.1 Administrative divisions and the counties of Hungary
2.3.2.2 Municipal rights of the biggest cities in Hungary
3 Politics
3.1 Political struggles in the Empire
3.2 Ethnic relations
3.3 Foreign policy
4 Economy
4.1 Automotive industry
4.1.1 Austrian Empire
4.1.2 Kingdom of Hungary
4.2 Aeronautic industry
4.2.1 Austrian Empire
4.2.2 Kingdom of Hungary
4.3 Locomotive engine and railway vehicle manufacturers
4.3.1 Austrian Empire
4.3.2 Kingdom of Hungary
5 Infrastructure
5.1 Transport
5.1.1 Railways
5.1.1.1 Railway network of the Austrian Empire
5.1.1.2 Railway network in the Kingdom of Hungary
5.1.2 Metropolitan transit systems
5.1.2.1 Tramway lines in the cities
5.1.2.2 Electrified commuter railway lines
5.1.2.3 Underground
5.1.3 Canals and river regulations
5.1.3.1 Regulation of the lower
Danube
Danube and the Iron Gates
5.1.3.2 Regulation of the
Tisza
Tisza River
5.1.4 Shipping and ports
5.2 Telecommunication
5.2.1 Telegraph
5.2.1.1 Austrian Empire
5.2.1.2 Kingdom of Hungary
5.2.2 Telephone
5.2.2.1 Austrian Empire
5.2.2.2 Kingdom of Hungary
5.2.3 Electronic broadcasting
6 Demographics
6.1 Population and area
6.2 Languages
6.3 Religion
6.4 Largest cities
6.5 Education
6.5.1 Austrian Empire
6.5.2 Kingdom of Hungary
7 Military
8 World War I
8.1 Preludes: Bosnia and Herzegovina
8.1.1 Status of Bosnia-Herzegovina
8.1.2
Sarajevo
Sarajevo assassination
8.1.3 Escalation of violence in Bosnia
8.1.4 Decision for war
8.2 Wartime foreign policy
8.3 Homefront
8.4 Military events
8.4.1 Serbian front 1914–1916
8.4.2 Russian front 1914–1917
8.4.3 Italian front 1915–1918
8.4.4 Romanian front 1916
8.5 Role of Hungary
8.6 Analysis of defeat
9 Dissolution
9.1 Consequences
9.1.1 Successor states
9.1.2 Territorial legacy
10 Flags and heraldry
10.1 Flags
10.2 Coat of arms
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Notes
13 Further reading
13.1 Surveys
13.2 World war
13.3 Specialty topics
13.4 Primary sources
13.5 Historiography and memory
13.6 In German
14 External links
Structure and name[edit]
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
The realm's full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented
in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of
St. Stephen.
German: Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die
Länder der Heiligen Ungarischen Stephanskrone
Hungarian: A Birodalmi Tanácsban képviselt királyságok és
országok és a Magyar Szent Korona országai
The Habsburg monarch ruled as Emperor of Austria[14] over the western
and northern half of the country that was the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire ("Lands
Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania)[6] and as King
of Hungary[14] over the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary ("Lands of the Crown of
Saint Stephen", or Transleithania).[6] Each enjoyed considerable
sovereignty with only a few joint affairs (principally foreign
relations and defence).[15]
Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within
Cisleithania
Cisleithania and
Croatia
Croatia (officially the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia, even
Dalmatia
Dalmatia was in Cisleithanian part of the Dual Monarchy) within
Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, each with its own unique
governmental structures (see: Polish Autonomy in Galicia and
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement).
The division between
Austria
Austria and
Hungary
Hungary was so marked that there was
no common citizenship: one was either an Austrian citizen or a
Hungarian citizen, never both.[16][17] This also meant that there were
always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, never a common
one.[18][19] However, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were
used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom
issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and
displayed the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia
on them.[20] It is not known what kind of passports were used in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both
Austria
Austria and
Hungary.[citation needed]
The Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament,
the Diet of Hungary, even after the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire was created in
1804.[21] The administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary
(until 1848–49 Hungarian revolution) remained largely untouched by
the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungary's
central government structures remained well separated from the
Austrian imperial government. The country was governed by the Council
of Lieutenancy of
Hungary
Hungary (the Gubernium) – located in Pressburg and
later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in
Vienna.[22] The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were
suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, and were reinstated
after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise in 1867.
Despite
Austria
Austria and
Hungary
Hungary sharing a common currency, they were
fiscally sovereign and independent entities.[23] Since the beginnings
of the personal union (from 1527), the government of the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary could preserve its separated and independent budget. After the
revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with
the Austrian, and it was only after the Compromise of 1867 that
Hungary
Hungary obtained a separate budget.[24] From 1527 (the creation of the
monarchic personal union) to 1851, the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary maintained
its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of
the Habsburg-ruled territories.[25] After 1867, the Austrian and
Hungarian customs union agreement had to be renegotiated and
stipulated every ten years. The agreements were renewed and signed by
Vienna
.jpg/532px-Schloss_Schönbrunn_Wien_2014_(Zuschnitt_1).jpg)
Vienna and
Budapest
Budapest at the end of every decade because both countries
hoped to derive mutual economic benefit from the customs union. The
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire and Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary contracted their foreign
commercial treaties independently of each other.[6]
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was a great power but it contained a large number of
ethnic groups that sought their own nation. It was ruled by a
coalition of two powerful minorities, the Germans and the Hungarians.
Stresses regarding nationalism were building up, and the severe shock
of a poorly handled war caused the system to collapse.[26][27]
Vienna
Vienna served as the Monarchy's primary capital. The Cisleithanian
(Austrian) part contained about 57 percent of the total population and
the larger share of its economic resources, compared to the Hungarian
part.
Following a decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868, the realm bore the
official name Austro-Hungarian Monarchy/Realm (German:
Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie/Reich; Hungarian:
Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia/Birodalom) in its international relations.
It was often contracted to the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy in English, or simply
referred to as Austria.[28]
Creation[edit]
Part of a series on the
History of Austria
Early history
Hallstatt culture
Noricum
Noricum -
Pannonia
Pannonia - Raetia
Marcomanni
Marcomanni -
Lombards
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Bavarians
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Bavarians - Suebi
Avars
Samo's Realm
Carantania
East Francia
Duchy of Bavaria
Duchy of Bavaria - Margraviate of Austria
House of Babenberg
Privilegium Minus
Habsburg era
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Holy Roman Empire
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Archduchy of Austria
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World War I
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
World War I
Interwar years
Republic of German-Austria
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Jews
Jews in Vienna
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Austria portal
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Part of a series on the
History of Hungary
Early history
Hungarian prehistory
Hungary
Hungary before the Hungarians
Roman Pannonia
Hungarian conquest
Medieval
Principality
895–1000
High Medieval Kingdom
1000–1301
Late Medieval Kingdom
1301–1526
Ottoman Wars
1366–1526
Early modern
Habsburg kingdom
1526–1867
Eastern kingdom
1526–1570
Ottoman Hungary
1541–1699
Principality of Transylvania
1570–1711
Late modern
Rákóczi's War
1703–1711
Revolution of 1848
1848–1849
Austria-Hungary
1867–1918
Lands of the Crown
1867–1918
World War I
1914–1918
Interwar period
1918–1941
First Hungarian Republic
1918–1920
Hungarian Soviet Republic
1919
Kingdom of Hungary
1920–1946
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1941–1945
Contemporary
Second Hungarian Republic
1946–1949
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1949–1989
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since 1989
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Main article: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg.png)
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (called the Ausgleich in
German and the Kiegyezés in Hungarian), which inaugurated the
empire's dual structure in place of the former unitary Austrian Empire
(1804–67), originated at a time when
Austria
Austria had declined in
strength and in power—both in the
Italian Peninsula
Italian Peninsula (as a result of
the
Second Italian War of Independence
Second Italian War of Independence of 1859) and among the states
of the
German Confederation
German Confederation (it had been surpassed by
Prussia
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Prussia_(1892-1918).svg.png)
Prussia as the
dominant German-speaking power following the
Austro-Prussian War
Austro-Prussian War of
1866).[29]
Other factors in the constitutional changes were continued Hungarian
dissatisfaction with rule from
Vienna
Vienna and increasing national
consciousness on the part of other nationalities (or ethnicities) of
the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction arose partly from
Austria's suppression with Russian support of the Hungarian liberal
revolution of 1848–49. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule
had grown for many years within
Hungary
Hungary and had many other causes.
By the late 1850s, a large number of
Hungarians
Hungarians who had supported the
1848–49 revolution were willing to accept the Habsburg monarchy.
They argued that while
Hungary
Hungary had the right to full internal
independence, under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs
and defense were "common" to both
Austria
Austria and Hungary.[30]
After the Austrian defeat at Königgrätz, the government realized it
needed to reconcile with
Hungary
Hungary to regain the status of a great
power. The new foreign minister, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust,
wanted to conclude the stalemated negotiations with the Hungarians. To
secure the monarchy, Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a
compromise with the Hungarian nobility, led by Ferenc Deák, to ensure
their support. In particular, Hungarian leaders demanded and received
the Emperor's coronation as
King of Hungary
.svg/300px-Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1915-1918;_angels).svg.png)
King of Hungary and the re-establishment
of a separate parliament at Pest with powers to enact laws for the
lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary.[30]
From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official
institutions in Austria-
Hungary
Hungary reflected their responsibility: K. u.
k. (kaiserlich und königlich or Imperial and Royal) was the label for
institutions common to both parts of the Monarchy, e.g. the k.u.k.
Kriegsmarine (War Fleet) and, during the war, the k.u.k. Armee (Army).
There were three k.u.k. or joint ministries:
The
Imperial and Royal
Imperial and Royal Ministry of the Exterior and the Imperial House
The
Imperial and Royal
Imperial and Royal War Ministry
The
Imperial and Royal
Imperial and Royal Ministry of Finance
The last was responsible only for financing the Imperial and Royal
household, the diplomatic service, the common army and the common war
fleet. All other state functions were to be handled separately by each
of the two states.[31]
From 1867 onwards, common expenditures were allocated 70% to Austria
and 30% to Hungary. This split had to be negotiated every decade. By
1907, the Hungarian share had risen to 36.4%.[32] The negotiations in
1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy.
The common army changed its label from k.k. to k.u.k. only in 1889 at
the request of the Hungarian government.
K. k. (kaiserlich-königlich) or
Imperial-Royal was the term for
institutions of
Cisleithania
Cisleithania (Austria); "royal" in this label referred
to the Crown of Bohemia.
K. u. (königlich-ungarisch) or M. k. (Magyar királyi) ("Royal
Hungarian") referred to Transleithania, the lands of the Hungarian
crown. In the Kingdom of
Croatia
Croatia and Slavonia, its autonomous
institutions hold k. (kraljevski) ("Royal") as according to the
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement the only official language in Croatia
and
Slavonia
Slavonia was Croatian and those institutions were "only" Croatian.
Politics and government[edit]
Austrian
Parliament
.svg/600px-Parliament_Of_Canada_Seating_Plan_2015_(With_Speaker_Included).svg.png)
Parliament building
Hungarian
Parliament
Parliament building
Government[edit]
See also:
Imperial Council (Austria)
Imperial Council (Austria) and Diet of Hungary
There were three parts to the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire:[33]
the common foreign, military and a joint financial policy (only for
diplomatic, military and naval expenditures) under the monarch
the "Austrian" or Cisleithanian government
the Hungarian government
Hungary
Hungary and
Austria
Austria maintained separate parliaments each with its own
prime minister. Linking/co-ordinating the two parliaments fell to a
government under the monarch. In this sense Austria-
Hungary
Hungary remained
under an authoritarian government, as the Emperor-King appointed both
Austrian and Hungarian Prime ministers along with their respective
cabinets. This made both Governments responsible to the Emperor-King,
as neither half could have a government with a program contrary to the
views of the Monarch. The Emperor-King could appoint non-parliamentary
governments, for example, or maintain in power a government which does
not have a majority in
Parliament
Parliament to block the formation of another
which he does not approve. The Monarch had other prerogatives such as
the right of Royal Assent before any kind of Bill would be presented
to the National Assembly (the common name for the Hungarian Diet), the
right to Veto all legislation passed by the National Assembly, and the
power to prorogue or dissolve the Assembly and call to new elections
(he had the same prerogatives considering the Croatian-Slavonian Diet
or Croatian Parliament, the common name for the Croatian-Slavonian
Diet). In the Austrian half, however, the Monarchs's power was even
greater, as the Emperor had the power to both appoint and dismiss its
Prime minister
Prime minister and cabinet members. The monarch's common government,
in which its ministers were appointed by the Monarch and responsible
to him, had the responsibility for the army, for the navy, for foreign
policy, and for the customs union.[30] Due to the lack of common law
between
Austria
Austria and Hungary, to conclude identical texts, each
parliament elected 60 of its members to form a delegation that
discussed motions of the
Imperial and Royal
Imperial and Royal ministries separately and
worked towards a compromise.[31]
A common Ministerial Council ruled the common government: it comprised
the three ministers for the joint responsibilities (joint finance,
military, and foreign policy), the two prime ministers, some Archdukes
and the monarch.[34] Two delegations of representatives (60–60
members), one each from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, met
separately and voted on the expenditures of the Common Ministerial
Council giving the two governments influence in the common
administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the
monarch who had the final decision on matters of foreign and military
policy.
Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the
ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies.[31]
The armed forces suffered particularly from overlap. Although the
unified government determined the overall military direction, the
Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of
recruiting, supplies and training. Each government could have a strong
influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to
advance its own interests.[34]
Relations during the half-century after 1867 between the two parts of
the dual monarchy featured repeated disputes over shared external
tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each
government to the common treasury. Under the terms of the
"Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867", an agreement renegotiated every
ten years, determined these matters. There was political turmoil
during the build-up to each renewal of the agreement. The disputes
culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It
was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command
in Hungarian army units, and deepened by the advent to power in
Budapest
Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition.
Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October
1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo.[31]
Judicial system[edit]
Empire
Empire of Austria[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March
2013)
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
The judicial power was independent of the administrative power. After
1868 (Croatian–Hungarian Settlement), Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia had its own
independent judicial system (the Table of Seven was the court of last
instance for Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia with final civil and criminal
jurisdiction). The judicial authorities in
Hungary
Hungary were:
the district courts with single judges (458 in 1905);
the county courts with collegiate judgeships (76 in number); to these
were attached 15 jury courts for press offences. These were courts of
first instance. In Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia these were known as the court
tables after 1874;
Royal Tables (12 in number), which were courts of second instance,
established at Budapest, Debrecen, Győr, Kassa, Kolozsvár,
Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pécs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvár and
Ban's Table at Zagreb.
The Royal Supreme Court at Budapest, and the Supreme Court of Justice,
or Table of Seven, at Zagreb, which were the highest judicial
authorities. There were also a special commercial court at Budapest, a
naval court at Fiume, and special army courts.[24]
Public administration and local governments[edit]
Empire
Empire of Austria[edit]
Emperor Franz Joseph I visiting
Prague
Prague and opening the new Emperor
Francis I. Bridge in 1901
Kraków, a historical Polish city in the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire where
in 1870 authorities allowed the use of the
Polish language
Polish language in the
Jagiellonian University.
The organization of the administrative system in the Austrian Empire
was complicated by the fact that between the State and the purely
local communal administration there intruded yet a third element,
grounded in history, the territories (Länder). The State
administration comprised all affairs having relation to rights, duties
and interests "which are common to all territories"; all other
administrative tasks were left to the territories. Finally, the
communes had self-government within their own sphere.
To this division of the work of administration corresponded a
three-fold organization of the authorities: State, territorial and
communal. The State authorities were divided on geographical lines
into central, intermediate and local, and side by side with this there
was a division of the offices for the transaction of business
according to the various branches of the administration. The central
authorities, which as early as the 18th century worked together in a
common mother cell of the State chancery, became differentiated so
soon as the growing tasks of administration called for specialization;
in 1869 there were seven departments, and in the concluding decade of
the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire there were set up Ministries of Labour, Food,
Public Health and Social Care. Under these ministries came the
Statthalter, whose administrative area had ordinarily the proportions
of a Crown territory (Kronland); but the immense variations in area of
the Crown territories made a uniform and consistent intermediate
administrative organization practically impossible. The lowest
administrative unit was the political sub-district (Bezirk) under an
official (Bezirkshauptmann), who united nearly all the administrative
functions which were divided among the various ministries according to
their attributions.
Side by side with the State administration certain Crown territory
administrations also existed in the 17 Crown territories, carried on
by selected honorary officials, having under them a staff of
professional officials. Many branches of the territorial
administration had great similarities with those of the State, so that
their spheres of activity frequently overlapped and came into
collision. This administrative "double track", as it was called, led,
it is true, in many cases to lively emulation, but was on the whole
highly extravagant. The evils of this complicated system are obvious,
and easy to condemn. They can be explained, partly by the origin of
the State – for the most part through a voluntary union of countries
possessed by a strong sense of their own individuality – partly by
the influence in
Austria
Austria of the Germanic spirit, well understood by
the Slavs, which has nothing of the Latin tendency to reduce all
questions of administration to clear-cut formulae as part of a
logically consistent system. Like the English administrative system,
the Austrian presented a rich variety, a variety indeed so rich that
it clamoured for drastic reform.
Bienerth's last act as premier in May 1911 was the appointment of a
commission nominated by the Emperor, to draw up a scheme of
administrative reform. So early as 1904 KOrber had declared a complete
change in the principles of administration to be essential if the
machinery of State were to continue working. After seven years of
inaction, however, this imperial rescript was pitched in a far lower
key. The continuous progress of society, it said, had made increased
demands on the administration, that is to say, it was assumed that
reform was not demanded so much by the defects of the administration
but by the progress of the times, not because the administration was
bad, but because life was better. It was an attempt to reform the
administration without first reforming the State on equivalent lines.
A reform commission without a programme naturally first occupied
itself with reforms about which there was no controversy. After a year
had gone by it drew up "Proposals for the training of State
officials". After another two years it had indeed brought to light
carefully prepared material for study, which was of great scientific
value; but its proposals. though politically of importance, did not
provide any basis for reform on a large scale. And so when the World
War broke out the commission dispersed without practical results,
leaving behind it an imposing array of folio volumes of great
scientific value. It was not till March 1918 that the Seidler
Government decided upon a programme of national autonomy as a basis
for administrative reform, which was, however, never carried into
effect.[35]
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
Administrative divisions and the counties of Hungary[edit]
Since 1867 the administrative and political divisions of the lands
belonging to the Hungarian crown have been in great measure
remodelled. In 1868
Transylvania
Transylvania was definitely reunited to Hungary
proper, and the town and district of
Fiume
Fiume declared autonomous. In
1873 part of the "Military Frontier" was united with
Hungary
Hungary proper
and part with Croatia-Slavonia.
Hungary
Hungary proper, according to ancient
usage, was generally divided into four great divisions or circles, and
Transylvania
Transylvania up to 1876 was regarded as the fifth. In 1876 a general
system of counties was introduced. According to this division Hungary
proper is divided into seven circles, of which
Transylvania
Transylvania forms one.
The whole country is divided into the following counties:
(a) The circle on the left bank of the
Danube
Danube contains eleven
counties: (1) Árva, (2) Bars, (3) Esztergom, (4) Hont, (5) Liptó,
(6) Nógrád, (7) Nyitra, (8)
Pozsony
Pozsony (9) Trencsén, (10) Túrócz and
(11) Zólyom.
(b) The circle on the right bank of the
Danube
Danube contains eleven
counties: Baranya, Fejér, Győr, Komárom, Moson, Somogy, Sopron,
Tolna, Vas, Veszprém and Zala.
(c) The circle between the
Danube
Danube and
Tisza
Tisza contains five counties:
Bács-Bodrog, Csongrád, Heves, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok and
Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun.
(d) The circle on the right bank of the
Tisza
Tisza contains eight counties:
Abaúj-Torna, Bereg, Borsod, Gömör-es Kis-Hont, Sáros, Szepes, Ung,
Zemplén.
(e) The circle on the left bank of the
Tisza
Tisza contains eight counties:
Békés, Bihar, Hajdú, Máramaros, Szabolcs, Szatmár, Szilágy and
Ugocsa.
(f) The circle between the
Tisza
Tisza and the Maros contains five counties:
Arad, Csanád, Krassó-Szörény, Temes and Torontál.
(g)
Transylvania
Transylvania contains fifteen counties: Also-Fehér,
Besztercze-Naszód, Brassó, Csík, Fogaras, Háromszek, Hunyad,
Kis-Küküllő, Kolozs, Maros-Torda, Nagy-Küküllő, Szeben,
Szolnok-Doboka, Torda-Aranyos and Udvarhely.
Fiume
Fiume town and district forms a separate division.
Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia is divided into eight counties: Bjelovar-Križevci,
Lika-Krbava, Modrus-Fiume, Pozega, Srijemska, Varaždin, Virovitica
and Zagreb.
Municipal rights of the biggest cities in Hungary[edit]
In regard to local government, the country was divided into
municipalities or counties, which possessed a certain amount of
self-government.
Hungary
Hungary proper was divided into sixty-three rural,
and—including Fiume—twenty-six urban municipalities (see section
on Administrative Divisions). These urban municipalities were towns
which for their local government were independent of the counties in
which they were situated, and have, therefore, a larger amount of
municipal autonomy than the communes or the other towns. The
administration of the municipalities is carried on by an official
appointed by the king, aided by a representative body. Since 1876 each
municipality had a council of twenty members to exercise control over
its administration. According to this division
Hungary
Hungary proper is
divided into seven circles.[24]
Besides these sixty-three rural counties for Hungary, and eight for
Croatia-Slavonia,
Hungary
Hungary had twenty-six urban counties or towns with
municipal rights. These were: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Győr,
Hódmezővásárhely, Kassa, Kecskemét, Kolozsvár, Komárom,
Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pancsova, Pécs, Pozsony, Selmecz- és
Bélabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmárnémeti, Szeged,
Székesfehervár, Temesvár, Újvidék, Versecz, Zombor, the town of
Fiume
Fiume and Budapest, the capital of the country.[24]
In Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia there are four urban counties or towns with
municipal rights namely: Osijek, Varaždin and
Zagreb
Zagreb and Zemun.[24]
Politics[edit]
See also: Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
The first prime minister of
Hungary
Hungary after the Compromise was Count
Gyula Andrássy (1867–1871). The old Hungarian Constitution was
restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Andrássy
next served as the Foreign Minister of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary (1871–1879).
The
Empire
Empire relied increasingly on a cosmopolitan bureaucracy—in
which
Czechs
Czechs played an important role—backed by loyal elements,
including a large part of the German, Hungarian, Polish and Croat
aristocracy.[36]
Political struggles in the Empire[edit]
The traditional aristocracy and land-based gentry class gradually
faced increasingly wealthy men of the cities, who achieved wealth
through trade and industrialization. The urban middle and upper class
tended to seek their own power and supported progressive movements in
the aftermath of revolutions in Europe. They were described as
"leftist liberals" and their representatives began to be elected to
the parliaments of
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest. These leftist liberal
parliamentary parties were backed by the big industrialists, bankers,
businessmen, and the predominant majority of newspaper publishers.[37]
As in the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire frequently used
liberal economic policies and practices. From the 1860s, businessmen
succeeded in industrializing parts of the Empire. Newly prosperous
members of the bourgeoisie erected large homes, and began to take
prominent roles in urban life that rivaled the aristocracy's. In the
early period, they encouraged the government to seek foreign
investment to build up infrastructure, such as railroads, in aid of
industrialization, transportation and communications, and development.
The influence of liberals in Austria, most of them ethnic Germans,
weakened under the leadership of Count Eduard von Taaffe, the Austrian
prime minister from 1879 to 1893. Taaffe used a coalition of clergy,
conservatives and Slavic parties to weaken the liberals. In Bohemia,
for example, he authorized Czech as an official language of the
bureaucracy and school system, thus breaking the German speakers'
monopoly on holding office. Such reforms encouraged other ethnic
groups to push for greater autonomy as well. By playing nationalities
off one another, the government ensured the monarchy's central role in
holding together competing interest groups in an era of rapid change.
During the First World War, rising national sentiments and labour
movements contributed to strikes, protests and civil unrest in the
Empire. After the war, republican, national parties contributed to the
disintegration and collapse of the monarchy in
Austria
Austria and Hungary.
Republics were established in
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest.[38]
Ethnic relations[edit]
See also: Trialism in Austria-Hungary,
United States
United States of Greater
Austria, Magyarization, Austro-Slavism, and Panslavism
Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon map of Austria-Hungary, 1885
Literacy in Austria-
Hungary
Hungary (census 1880)
Literacy in
Hungary
Hungary by counties in 1910 (excluding Croatia)
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary 1914, physical
In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary
Parliament
Parliament proclaimed and
enacted ethnic and minority rights (the next such laws were in
Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian
armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary
reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the
first acts of its restored
Parliament
Parliament was to pass a Law on
Nationalities (Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of
legislation, and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It
did not recognize non-
Hungarians
Hungarians to have rights to form states with
any territorial autonomy.[39]
The "Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867" created the semi-independent
states of
Hungary
Hungary and
Austria
Austria linked by personal union under a common
monarch. The Hungarian majority asserted more of their identity within
the Kingdom of Hungary. The nationalism of German-speakers prevalent
in the
Empire
Empire of
Austria
Austria created tension between ethnic Germans and
ethnic Czechs. In addition, the emergence of national identity in the
newly independent
Romania
Romania and
Serbia
Serbia also contributed to ethnic issues
in the empire.
Article 19 of the 1867 "Basic State Act" (Staatsgrundgesetz), valid
only for the Cisleithanian (Austrian) part of Austria-Hungary,[40]
said:
All races of the empire have equal rights, and every race has an
inviolable right to the preservation and use of its own nationality
and language. The equality of all customary languages ("landesübliche
Sprachen") in school, office and public life, is recognized by the
state. In those territories in which several races dwell, the public
and educational institutions are to be so arranged that, without
applying compulsion to learn a second country language
("Landessprache"), each of the races receives the necessary means of
education in its own language.[41]
The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it
was not clear which languages could be regarded as "customary". The
Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite,
demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in
every part of the empire. Italian was regarded as an old "culture
language" (Kultursprache) by German intellectuals and had always been
granted equal rights as an official language of the Empire, but the
Germans had difficulty in accepting the
Slavic languages
Slavic languages as equal to
their own. On one occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Grün)
entered the Diet of
Carniola
Carniola carrying what he claimed to be the whole
corpus of
Slovene literature
Slovene literature under his arm; this was to demonstrate
that the
Slovene language
Slovene language could not be substituted for German as the
language of higher education.
The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at
least in Austria. From 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with
Italian in Dalmatia. From 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the
Diet of
Carniola
Carniola and in the capital Laibach (Ljubljana); they ruled to
replace German with Slovene as their primary official language.
Galicia designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary
language of government.
The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the
Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their
language to German. The
Czechs
Czechs had lived primarily in
Bohemia
Bohemia since
the 6th century and German immigrants had begun settling the Bohemian
periphery since the 13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the
German language
German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German
speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a
minority to Czech speakers in the cities of
Prague
Prague and Pilsen (while
retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of
Brno
Brno (Brünn)).
The old
Charles University
Charles University in Prague, hitherto dominated by German
speakers, was divided into German and Czech-speaking faculties in
1882.
At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local
majorities of
Romanians
Romanians in
Transylvania
Transylvania and in the eastern Banat,
Slovaks
Slovaks in today's Slovakia, and
Croats
Croats and
Serbs
Serbs in the crown lands
of
Croatia
Croatia and of
Dalmatia
Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and in the provinces known as the
Vojvodina
Vojvodina (today's
northern Serbia). The
Romanians
Romanians and the
Serbs
Serbs began to agitate for
union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the
newly founded states of
Romania
Romania (1859–78) and Serbia.
Hungary's leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian
counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they
granted a large measure of autonomy to
Croatia
Croatia in 1868. To some
extent, they modelled their relation to that kingdom on their own
compromise with
Austria
Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal
autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative
part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the Triune Kingdom
of
Croatia
Croatia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a
trialist Austro-Hungaro-Croatian monarchy among the supporters of the
idea where Archduke Leopold Salvator,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Archduke Franz Ferdinand and
emperor and king Charles I. (IV.) who during his short reign supported
the trialist idea only to be vetoed by the Hungarian government and
Count Istvan Tisza. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation
after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918. one day after
the king.[42]
Language was one of the most contentious issues in Austro-Hungarian
politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in
deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The
minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own
languages, as well as in the "dominant" languages—Hungarian and
German. By the "Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime
Minister
Count Kasimir Felix Badeni
Count Kasimir Felix Badeni gave Czech equal standing with
German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis
because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The
Crown dismissed Badeni.
The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities (Slovaks,
Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual (but not also communal) rights to
use their language in offices, schools (although in practice often
only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and
municipalities (if 20% of the deputies demanded it). From June 1907,
all public and private schools in
Hungary
Hungary were obliged to ensure that
after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently
in Hungarian. This led to the closing of several minority schools,
devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages.
The two kingdoms sometimes divided their spheres of influence.
According to
Misha Glenny
Misha Glenny in his book, The Balkans, 1804–1999, the
Austrians
Austrians responded to Hungarian support of
Czechs
Czechs by supporting the
Croatian national movement in Zagreb.
In recognition that he reigned in a multi-ethnic country, Emperor
Franz Joseph spoke (and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently,
and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree.
Around 1900,
Jews
Jews in the empire numbered about two million;[43] their
position was ambiguous. Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but
the governments of
Vienna
Vienna and
Budapest
Budapest did not initiate pogroms or
implement official antisemitic policies.[citation needed] They feared
that such ethnic violence could ignite other ethnic minorities and
escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the
periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among
voters in the parliamentary elections.[citation needed]
In that period, the majority of
Jews
Jews in Austria-
Hungary
Hungary lived in small
towns (shtetls) in Galicia and rural areas in
Hungary
Hungary and Bohemia,
although there were large communities in Vienna, Budapest,
Prague
Prague and
other large cities. Of the pre-World War military forces of the major
European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its
regular promotion of
Jews
Jews to positions of command.[44] While the
Jewish
Jewish population of the lands of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy was about five
percent,
Jews
Jews made up nearly eighteen percent of the reserve officer
corps.[45] Thanks to the constitution's modern laws and to the
benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian
Jews
Jews came to regard
the era of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary as a golden era of their history.[46] By
1910 about 900,000
Jews
Jews made up approximately 5 percent of the
population of
Hungary
Hungary and about 23 percent of Budapest's citizenry.
Jews
Jews accounted for 54 percent of commercial business owners, 85
percent of financial institution directors and owners, and 62 percent
of all employees in commerce[47]
Foreign policy[edit]
See also:
International relations (1814–1919)
International relations (1814–1919) and Foreign Ministry
of Austria-Hungary
Muslim
Muslim Bosniak resistance during the battle of
Sarajevo
Sarajevo in 1878
against the Austro-Hungarian occupation.
The minister of foreign affairs conducted the foreign relations of the
Dual Monarchy, and negotiated treaties.[48]
The
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy was created in the wake of a losing war in 1866 with
Prussia
Prussia and Italy. To rebuild Habsburg prestige and gain revenge
against Prussia,
Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust became foreign
secretary. He hated Prussia's diplomat, Otto von Bismarck, who had
repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to
France
France and negotiated
with Emperor
Napoleon III
Napoleon III and
Italy
Italy for an anti-Prussian alliance. No
terms could be reached. The decisive victory of Prusso-German armies
in the war of 1870 with
France
France and the founding of the German Empire
ended all hope of revenge and Beust retired.[49]
After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy turned
to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic efforts were
trying to end the rule of the Ottomans. Both Russia and
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia in
particular took on the role of protector of the Slavs and the orthodox
Christians.
Austria
Austria envisioned a multi-ethnic, religiously diverse
empire under Vienna's control. Count Gyula Andrássy, a Hungarian who
was Foreign Minister (1871 to 1879), made the centerpiece of his
policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and
blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He
wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia.[50]
When Russia defeated Turkey in a war the resulting Treaty of San
Stefano was seen in
Austria
Austria as much too favourable for Russia and its
Orthodox-Slavic goals. The
Congress of Berlin
Congress of Berlin in 1878 let Austria
occupy (but not annex) the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a
predominantly Slavic area. In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia
rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated
the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I.[51]
Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of Austria-Hungary
A 20-crown banknote of the Dual Monarchy, using all official and
recognized languages
The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the Dual
Monarchy. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the
Empire
Empire during its 50-year existence, replacing medieval[citation
needed] institutions.
Technological change
Technological change accelerated
industrialization and urbanization. The first Austrian stock exchange
(the Wiener Börse) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock
exchange of the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary (the
Budapest
Budapest Stock Exchange) was
opened in
Budapest
Budapest in 1864. The central bank (Bank of issue) was
founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed
into Austro-
Hungarian National Bank
Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest.[52] The central bank was governed by alternating
Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice-governors.[53]
The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from
1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of
other European nations such as Britain (1%),
France
France (1.06%), and
Germany (1.51%).[54] However, in a comparison with Germany and
Britain, the Austro-Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged
considerably, as sustained modernization had begun much later. Like
the German Empire, that of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary frequently employed liberal
economic policies and practices. In 1873, the old Hungarian capital
Buda
Buda and Óbuda (Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third
city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic
Pest grew into Hungary's administrative, political, economic, trade
and cultural hub. Many of the state institutions and the modern
administrative system of
Hungary
Hungary were established during this period.
Economic growth centered on
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest, the Austrian lands
(areas of modern Austria), the Alpine region and the Bohemian lands.
In the later years of the 19th century, rapid economic growth spread
to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a
result, wide disparities of development existed within the empire. In
general, the western areas became more developed than the eastern. The
Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary became the world's second largest flour exporter
after the United States.[55] The large Hungarian food exports were not
limited to neighbouring Germany and Italy:
Hungary
Hungary became the most
important foreign food supplier of the large cities and industrial
centres of the United Kingdom.[56]
However, by the end of the 19th century, economic differences
gradually began to even out as economic growth in the eastern parts of
the monarchy consistently surpassed that in the western. The strong
agriculture and food industry of the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary with the
centre of
Budapest
Budapest became predominant within the empire and made up a
large proportion of the export to the rest of Europe. Meanwhile,
western areas, concentrated mainly around
Prague
Prague and Vienna, excelled
in various manufacturing industries. This division of labour between
the east and west, besides the existing economic and monetary union,
led to an even more rapid economic growth throughout Austria-Hungary
by the early 20th century. However, since the turn of the twentieth
century, the Austrian half of the Monarchy could preserve its
dominance within the empire in the sectors of the first industrial
revolution, but
Hungary
Hungary had a better position in the industries of the
second industrial revolution, in these modern sectors of the second
industrial revolution the Austrian competition could not become
dominant.[57]
The empire's heavy industry had mostly focused on machine building,
especially for the electric power industry, locomotive industry and
automotive industry, while in light industry the precision mechanics
industry was the most dominant. Through the years leading up to World
War I the country became the 4th biggest machine manufacturer in the
world.[58]
The two most important trading partners were traditionally Germany
(1910: 48% of all exports, 39% of all imports), and Great Britain
(1910: almost 10% of all exports, 8% of all imports), the third most
important partner was the United States, it followed by Russia,
France, Switzerland, Romania, the Balkan states and South America.[6]
Trade with the geographically neighbouring Russia, however, had a
relatively low weight (1910: 3% of all exports /mainly machinery for
Russia, 7% of all imports /mainly raw materials from Russia).
Automotive industry[edit]
Austrian Empire[edit]
Prior to World War I, the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire had five car manufacturer
companies. These were:
Austro-Daimler
Austro-Daimler in Wiener-Neustadt (cars trucks,
buses),[59] Gräf & Stift in
Vienna
Vienna (cars),[60] Laurin &
Klement in
Mladá Boleslav
Mladá Boleslav (motorcycles, cars),[61] Nesselsdorfer in
Nesselsdorf (Kopřivnice),
Moravia
Moravia (automobiles), and
Lohner-Werke
Lohner-Werke in
Vienna
Vienna (cars).[62] Austrian car production started in 1897.
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
Prior to World War I, the Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary had four car manufacturer
companies. These were: the Ganz company[63][64] in Budapest, RÁBA
Automobile[65] in Győr, MÁG (later Magomobil)[66][67] in Budapest,
and MARTA (Hungarian Automobile Joint-stock Company Arad)[68] in Arad.
Hungarian car production started in 1900. Automotive factories in the
Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary manufactured motorcycles, cars, taxicabs, trucks
and buses.[citation needed]
Aeronautic industry[edit]
Austrian Empire[edit]
The first airplane in
Austria
Austria was Edvard Rusjan's design, the Eda I,
which had its maiden flight in the vicinity of
Gorizia
Gorizia on 25 November
1909.[69]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2014)
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
The first Hungarian hydrogen filled experimental ballons were built by
István Szabik and József Domin in 1784. The first Hungarian designed
and produced airplane (powered by Hungarian built inline engine) was
flown at Rákosmező on 4 November[70] 1909.[71] The earliest
Hungarian radial engine powered airplane was built in 1913. Between
1913 and 1918, the Hungarian aircraft industry began developing. The
three greatest:
UFAG Hungarian Aircraft Factory (1914), Hungarian
General Aircraft Factory (1916), Hungarian Lloyd Aircraft, Engine
Factory at
Aszód
Aszód (1916),[72] and Marta in Arad (1914).[73] During the
First World War, fighter planes, bombers and reconnaissance planes
were produced in these factories. The most important aeroengine
factories were Weiss Manfred Works, GANZ Works, and Hungarian
Automobile Joint-stock Company Arad.
Locomotive engine and railway vehicle manufacturers[edit]
Austrian Empire[edit]
The locomotive (steam engines and wagons, bridge and iron structures)
factories were installed in
Vienna
Vienna (Locomotive Factory of the State
Railway Company, founded in 1839), in
Wiener Neustadt
Wiener Neustadt (New Vienna
Locomotive Factory, founded in 1841), and in Floridsdorf (Floridsdorf
Locomotive Factory, founded in 1869).[citation needed][74][75]
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
The Hungarian Locomotive (engines and wagons bridge and iron
structures) factories were the
MÁVAG company in
Budapest
Budapest (steam
engines and wagons) and the
Ganz company
Ganz company in
Budapest
Budapest (steam engines,
wagons, the production of electric locomotives and electric trams
started from 1894).[76] and the RÁBA Company in Győr.
Infrastructure[edit]
Detailed railway and canal map of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire in 1910.
Railway network of Kingdom of Hungary
Hydrography of the
Pannonian basin
Pannonian basin before the Hungarian river and lake
regulations in the 19th century.
Plan (1900) to link the
Danube
Danube and the
Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea by a canal.
The start of construction of the underground in
Budapest
Budapest (1894–1896)
The SS Kaiser Franz Joseph I (12.567 t) of the Austro-Americana
company was the largest passenger ship ever built in Austria. Because
of its control over the Littorals and much of the Balkans,
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary had access to several seaports.
A stentor reading the day's news in the Telefonhírmondó of Budapest
An Austrian public telephone in a rural post office, 1890
Transport[edit]
Railways[edit]
Main articles:
Imperial Austrian State Railways
.jpg/600px-Gustav_Jahn_-_Hohe_Tauern,_Grossglockner_(Werbeplakat).jpg)
Imperial Austrian State Railways and Hungarian State
Railways
By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian
Empire
Empire and Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890
miles). In Western Europe only Germany had more extended railway
network (63,378 km, 39,381 mi); the Austro-Hungarian Empire
was followed by
France
France (40,770 km, 25,330 mi), the United
Kingdom (32,623 km, 20,271 mi),
Italy
Italy (18,873 km,
11,727 mi) and Spain (15,088 km, 9,375 mi).[77]
Railway network of the Austrian Empire[edit]
Rail transport
Rail transport expanded rapidly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its
predecessor state, the Habsburg Empire, had built a substantial core
of railways in the west, originating from Vienna, by 1841. Austria's
first steam railway from
Vienna
Vienna to
Moravia
Moravia with its terminus in
Galicia (Bochnie) was opened in 1839. The first train travelled from
Vienna
Vienna to Lundenburg (Břeclav) on 6 June 1839 and one month later
between the imperial capital in
Vienna
Vienna and the capital of Moravia
Brünn (Brno) on 7 July. At that point, the government realized the
military possibilities of rail and began to invest heavily in
construction.
Pozsony
Pozsony (Bratislava), Budapest, Prague, Kraków, Graz,
Laibach (Ljubljana) and Venedig (Venice) became linked to the main
network. By 1854, the empire had almost 2,000 km (1,200 mi)
of track, about 60–70% of it in state hands. The government then
began to sell off large portions of track to private investors to
recoup some of its investments and because of the financial strains of
the 1848 Revolution and of the Crimean War.
From 1854 to 1879, private interests conducted almost all rail
construction. What would become
Cisleithania
Cisleithania gained 7,952 km
(4,941 mi) of track, and
Hungary
Hungary built 5,839 km
(3,628 mi) of track. During this time, many new areas joined the
railway system and the existing rail networks gained connections and
interconnections. This period marked the beginning of widespread rail
transportation in Austria-Hungary, and also the integration of
transportation systems in the area. Railways allowed the empire to
integrate its economy far more than previously possible, when
transportation depended on rivers.
After 1879, the Austrian and the Hungarian governments slowly began to
renationalize their rail networks, largely because of the sluggish
pace of development during the worldwide depression of the 1870s.
Between 1879 and 1900, more than 25,000 km (16,000 mi) of
railways were built in
Cisleithania
Cisleithania and Hungary. Most of this
constituted "filling in" of the existing network, although some areas,
primarily in the far east, gained rail connections for the first time.
The railway reduced transportation costs throughout the empire,
opening new markets for products from other lands of the Dual
Monarchy. In 1914, of a total of 22,981 km (14,279.73 mi) of
railway tracks in Austria, 18,859 km (11,718 mi) (82%) were
state owned.
Railway network in the Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
The first Hungarian steam locomotive railway line was opened on 15
July 1846 between Pest and Vác.[78] In 1890 most large Hungarian
private railway companies were nationalized as a consequence of the
poor management of private companies, except the strong Austrian-owned
Kaschau-Oderberg Railway (KsOd) and the Austrian-Hungarian Southern
Railway (SB/DV). They also joined the zone tariff system of the MÁV
(Hungarian State Railways). By 1910, the total length of the rail
networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached 22,869 kilometres (14,210
miles), the Hungarian network linked more than 1,490 settlements.
Nearly half (52%) of the empire's railways were built in Hungary, thus
the railroad density there became higher than that of Cisleithania.
This has ranked Hungarian railways the 6th most dense in the world
(ahead of countries as Germany or France).[79]
Metropolitan transit systems[edit]
Tramway lines in the cities[edit]
Horse-drawn tramways appeared in the first half of the 19th century.
Between the 1850s and 1880s many were built.
Vienna
Vienna (1865), Budapest
(1866),
Brno
Brno (1869). Steam trams appeared in the late 1860s. The
electrification of tramways started from the late 1880s. The first
electrified tramway in Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was built in
Budapest
Budapest in 1887.
Electric tramway lines in the Austrian Empire:
Austria: Gmunden (1894); Linz,
Vienna
Vienna (1897);
Graz
Graz (1898); Ljubljana
(1901);
Innsbruck
Innsbruck (1905); Unterlach, Ybbs an der Donau (1907);
Salzburg (1909); Klagenfurt, Sankt Pölten (1911); Piran (1912)
Austrian Littoral:
Fiume
Fiume (1899);
Opatija
Opatija –
Lovran
Lovran (1908); Pula
(1904).
Bohemia:
Prague
Prague (1891); Teplice (1895); Liberec (1897); Ústí nad
Labem, Plzeň, Olomouc (1899); Moravia, Brno, Jablonec nad Nisou
(1900);
Ostrava
Ostrava (1901);
Mariánské Lázně
Mariánské Lázně (1902); Opava (1905);
Budějovice, České Budějovice, Jihlava (1909); Český
Těšín/Cieszyn (1911)
Dalmatia:
Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik (1910)
Galicia:
Lviv
Lviv (1894),
Bielsko-Biała
Bielsko-Biała (1895);
Kraków
Kraków (1901); Tarnów,
Cieszyn (1911)[80][81][82]
Electric tramway lines in the Kingdom of Hungary:
Hungary:
Budapest
Budapest (1887); Pressburg/Pozsony/
Bratislava
Bratislava (1895);
Szabadka/Subotica,
Szombathely
Szombathely (1897),
Miskolc
Miskolc (1897);
Temesvár/
Timișoara
Timișoara (1899);
Sopron
Sopron (1900); Szatmárnémeti/Satu Mare
(1900);
Nyíregyháza
Nyíregyháza (1905); Nagyszeben/
Sibiu
Sibiu (1905);
Nagyvárad/
Oradea
Oradea (1906);
Szeged
Szeged (1908);
Debrecen
_2.jpg/532px-Déri_Múzeum_(5226._számú_műemlék)_2.jpg)
Debrecen (1911);
Újvidék/
Novi Sad
.JPG/460px-Petrovaradin_Fortress_(Péterváradi_vár,_Peterwardein).JPG)
Novi Sad (1911); Kassa/
Košice
Košice (1913);
Pécs
Pécs (1913)
Croatia:
Zagreb
Zagreb (1910).[83][84][85][86]
Electrified commuter railway lines[edit]
Budapest
Budapest (See: BHÉV):
Ráckeve
Ráckeve line (1887),
Szentendre
Szentendre line (1888),
Gödöllő
Gödöllő line (1888),
Csepel
Csepel line (1912)[87]
Underground[edit]
The
Budapest
Budapest metro Line 1 (originally the "Franz Joseph Underground
Electric Railway Company") is the second oldest underground railway in
the world[88] (the first being the London Underground's Metropolitan
Line & the third being Glasgow), and the first on the European
mainland. It was built from 1894 to 1896 and opened on 2 May 1896.[89]
In 2002, it was listed as a
UNESCO
UNESCO World Heritage Site.[90]
Canals and river regulations[edit]
In 1900 the engineer C. Wagenführer drew up plans to link the Danube
and the
Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea by a canal from
Vienna
Vienna to Trieste. It was born
from the desire of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary to have a direct link to the
Adriatic Sea[91] but was never constructed.
Regulation of the lower
Danube
Danube and the Iron Gates[edit]
In 1831 a plan had already been drafted to make the passage navigable,
at the initiative of the Hungarian politician István Széchenyi.
Finally Gábor Baross, Hungary's "Iron Minister", succeeded in
financing this project. The riverbed rocks and the associated rapids
made the gorge valley an infamous passage for shipping. In German, the
passage is still known as the Kataraktenstrecke, even though the
cataracts are gone. Near the actual "Iron Gates" strait the Prigrada
rock was the most important obstacle until 1896: the river widened
considerably here and the water level was consequently low. Upstream,
the Greben rock near the "Kazan" gorge was notorious.
Regulation of the
Tisza
Tisza River[edit]
The length of the
Tisza
Tisza in
Hungary
Hungary used to be 1,419 kilometres (882
miles). It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of
the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a
river to flow very slowly, the
Tisza
Tisza used to follow a path with many
curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area.
After several small-scale attempts,
István Széchenyi
István Széchenyi organised the
"regulation of the Tisza" (Hungarian: a
Tisza
Tisza szabályozása) which
started on 27 August 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new
length of the river in
Hungary
Hungary was 966 km (600 mi)
(1,358 km (844 mi) total), with 589 km (366 mi) of
"dead channels" and 136 km (85 mi) of new riverbed. The
resultant length of the flood-protected river comprises 2,940 km
(1,830 mi) (out of 4,220 km (2,620 mi) of all Hungarian
protected rivers).
Shipping and ports[edit]
The first Hungarian steamship was built by Antal Bernhard in 1817,
called S.S. Carolina. It was also the first steamship in Habsburg
ruled states.[92] However it was Count
István Széchenyi
István Széchenyi (with the
help of Austrian ship's company Erste
Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft (DDSG)), who established the Óbuda
Shipyard on the Hungarian
Hajógyári Island
Hajógyári Island in 1835, which was the
first industrial scale steamship building company in the Habsburg
Empire.[93]
The most significant seaport was
Trieste
Trieste (today part of Italy), where
the Austrian merchant marine was based. In addition, the two major
shipping companies (Austrian Lloyd and Austro-Americana) and several
shipyards were located there. The k.u.k. navy used the port's
shipyards to construct new naval ships. This port grew as Venice
declined. From 1815 to 1866,
Venice
Venice was included within the monarchy
and was prevented from competing with Austrian-ruled ports. The
merchant marine did not develop until Venice's shipping interest
declined. The navy became significant during the time of the k.u.k.
monarchy, as industrialization and development provided sufficient
revenues to develop it.
The most important seaport for the Hungarian part of the k.u.k. was
Fiume
Fiume (Rijeka, today part of Croatia), where the Hungarian shipping
companies, such as the Adria, operated. The largest Hungarian
shipbuilding company was the Ganz-Danubius. Another significant
seaport was Pola (Pula, today part of Croatia) – especially for the
navy. In 1889, the Austrian merchant marine consisted of 10,022 ships,
with 7,992 fishing vessels. The coast and sea trade had a total of
1,859 sailboats with crews of 6,489 men and a load capacity of 140,838
tons; and 171 steamers with a load capacity of 96,323 tons and a crew
of 3,199 men.
The first Danubian steamer company, Donau-Dampfschiffahrt-Gesellschaft
(DDSG), was the largest inland shipping company in the world until the
collapse of the k.u.k. The Austrian Lloyd was one of the biggest ocean
shipping companies of the time. Prior to the beginning of World War I,
the company owned 65 middle-sized and large steamers. The
Austro-Americana owned one third of them, including the biggest
Austrian passenger ship, the SS Kaiser Franz Joseph I. In comparison
to the Austrian Lloyd, the Austro-American concentrated on
destinations in North and South America.[94][95][96][97][98][99]
Telecommunication[edit]
Telegraph[edit]
In 1847, the first telegraph connection (
Vienna
Vienna –
Brno
Brno – Prague)
started operation.[100] The first telegraph station on Hungarian
territory was opened in December 1847 in Pressburg/ Pozsony
/Bratislava/. In 1848, during the Hungarian Revolution, another
telegraph centre was built in
Buda
Buda to connect the most important
governmental centres. The first telegraph connection between Vienna
and Pest–
Buda
Buda (later Budapest) was constructed in 1850,[101] and
Vienna–
Zagreb
Zagreb (capital of the
Triune Kingdom
_with_crown.svg/340px-Coat_of_arms_of_Croatia_(1868-1918)_with_crown.svg.png)
Triune Kingdom of Croatia) in
1850.[102]
Austria
Austria joined a telegraph union with German states.[103]
Austrian Empire[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January
2013)
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
In 1884, 2,406 telegraph post offices operated in the Kingdom of
Hungary.[104] By 1914 the number of telegraph offices reached 3,000 in
post offices and further 2,400 were installed in the railway stations
of the Kingdom of Hungary.[105]
Telephone[edit]
The first telephone exchange was opened in
Zagreb
Zagreb (8 January
1881),[106][107][108] the second was in
Budapest
Budapest (1 May 1881),[109]
and the third was opened in
Vienna
Vienna (3 June 1881).[110] Initially
telephony was available in the homes of individual subscribers,
companies and offices. Public telephone stations appeared in the
1890s, and they quickly became widespread in post offices and railway
stations. Austria-
Hungary
Hungary had 568 million telephone calls in 1913;
only two Western European countries had more phone calls: the German
Empire
Empire and the United Kingdom. The Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire was
followed by
France
France with 396 million telephone calls and
Italy
Italy with 230
million phone calls.[111]
Austrian Empire[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January
2013)
In 1916, there were 366 million telephone calls in the Austrian half
of the monarchy, among them 8.4 million long distant calls.[112]
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
All telephone exchanges of the cities, towns and larger villages in
Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary were linked until 1893.[101] By 1914, more than
2000 settlements had telephone exchange in Kingdom of Hungary.[105]
Electronic broadcasting[edit]
The
Telefon Hírmondó
Telefon Hírmondó (Telephone Herald) news and entertainment
service was introduced in
Budapest
Budapest in 1893. Two decades before the
introduction of radio broadcasting, people could listen to political,
economic and sport news, cabaret, music and opera in
Budapest
Budapest daily.
It operated over a special type of telephone exchange system.
Demographics[edit]
Main article: Ethnic and religious composition of Austria-Hungary
The following data is based on the official Austro-Hungarian census
conducted in 1910.
Population and area[edit]
Area
Territory (km2)
Population
Empire
Empire of Austria
300,005 (≈48% of Austria-Hungary)
28,571,934 (≈57.8% of Austria-Hungary)
Kingdom of Hungary
325,411 (≈52% of Austria-Hungary)
20,886,487 (≈42.2% of Austria-Hungary)
Bosnia & Herzegovina
51,027
1,931,802
Sandžak
Sandžak (occupied until 1909)[113]
8,403
135,000
Languages[edit]
The census of 1910 recorded Umgangssprache, everyday language. Jews
and those using German in offices often stated German as their
Umgangssprache, even when having a different Muttersprache. In
"
Hungary
Hungary proper", 5% of the population were Jews, who were included in
speakers of the Hungarian language.[114]
Language
Number
%
German
12,006,521
23.36
Hungarian
10,056,315
19.57
Czech
6,442,133
12.54
Serbo-Croatian
5,621,797
10.94
Polish
4,976,804
9.68
Ruthenian (Ukrainian)
3,997,831
7.78
Romanian
3,224,147
6.27
Slovak
1,967,970
3.83
Slovene
1,255,620
2.44
Italian
768,422
1.50
Other
1,072,663
2.09
Total
51,390,223
100.00
In the Austrian Empire, 36.8% of the total population spoke German as
their native language, and more than 71% of the inhabitants spoke some
German. In the Kingdom of Hungary, 54.4% of the total population spoke
Hungarian as their native language. Not counting autonomous Croatia,
more than 64% of the inhabitants of the Hungarian Kingdom spoke
Hungarian.
Linguistic distribution
of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary as a whole
German
24%
Hungarian
20%
Czech
13%
Polish
10%
Ruthenian
8%
Romanian
6%
Croat
5%
Slovak
4%
Serbian
4%
Slovene
3%
Italian
3%
Mother tongues in
Cisleithania
Cisleithania (Austria) (1910 census)[115]
Land
Most common language
Other languages (more than 2%)
Bohemia
63.2%
Czech
36.45% (2,467,724)
German
Dalmatia
96.2%
Croatian
2.8%
Italian
Galicia
58.6%
Polish
40.2%
Ukrainian
Lower Austria
95.9%
German
3.8%
Czech
Upper Austria
99.7%
German
Bukovina
38.4%
Ukrainian
34.4%
Romanian
21.2%
German
4.6%
Polish
Carinthia
78.6%
German
21.2%
Slovene
Carniola
94.4%
Slovene
5.4%
German
Salzburg
99.7%
German
Silesia
43.9%
German
31.7%
Polish
24.3%
Czech
Styria
70.5%
German
29.4%
Slovene
Moravia
71.8%
Czech
27.6%
German
Tyrol
57.3%
German
42.1%
Italian
Littoral
37.3%
Slovene
34.5%
Italian
24.4%
Croatian
2.5%
German
Vorarlberg
95.4%
German
4.4%
Italian
Mother tongues in
Transleithania
Transleithania (Hungary) (1910 census)[116]
Language
Hungary
Hungary proper
Croatia-Slavonia
speakers
% of population
speakers
% of population
Hungarian
9,944,627
54.5%
105,948
4.1%
Romanian
2,948,186
16.0%
846
<0.1%
Slovak
1,946,357
10.7%
21,613
0.8%
German
1,903,657
10.4%
134, 078
5.1%
Serbian
461,516
2.5%
644,955
24.6%
Ruthenian
464,270
2.3%
8,317
0.3%
Croatian
194,808
1.1%
1,638,354
62.5%
Others and unspecified
401,412
2.2%
65,843
2.6%
Total
18,264,533
100%
2,621,954
100%
Note that some languages are considered dialects of more widely spoken
languages. For example, Rusyn and Ukrainian were both counted as
"Ruthenian" in the census, and
Rhaeto-Romance languages
Rhaeto-Romance languages were counted
as "Italian".
Historical regions:
Region
Main spoken language
Hungarian language
Other languages
Transylvania
Romanian – 2,819,467 (54%)
1,658,045 (31.7%)
German – 550,964 (10.5%)
Upper Hungary
Slovak – 1,688,413 (55.6%)
881,320 (32.3%)
German – 198,405 (6.8%)
Vojvodina
Serbo-Croatian
Serbo-Croatian – 601,770 (39.8%)
425,672 (28.1%)
German – 324,017 (21.4%)
Transcarpathia
Ruthenian – 330,010 (54.5%)
185,433 (30.6%)
German – 64,257 (10.6%)
Fiume
Italian – 24,212 (48.6%)
6,493 (13%)
Croatian and Serbian – 13,351 (26.8%)
Slovene – 2,336 (4.7%)
German – 2,315 (4.6%)
Burgenland
German – 217,072 (74.4%)
26,225 (9%)
Croatian – 43,633 (15%)
Prekmurje
Slovene – 74,199 (80.4%) – in 1921
14,065 (15.2%) – in 1921
German – 2,540 (2.8%) – in 1921
Religion[edit]
Religions in Austria-Hungary, from the 1881 edition of Andrees
Allgemeiner Handatlas.
Catholics
Catholics (both Roman and Uniate) are blue,
Protestants
Protestants purple,
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox yellow, and
Muslims
Muslims green.
Funeral in Galicia by Teodor Axentowicz, 1882
Religion in Austria-
Hungary
Hungary 1910[117]
Religion
Austria-Hungary
Austria/Cisleithania
Hungary/Transleithania
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Catholics
Catholics (both Roman and Eastern)
76.6 %
90.9 %
61.8 %
22.9 %
Protestants
8.9 %
2.1 %
19.0 %
0 %
Serbian Orthodox
8.7 %
2.3 %
14.3 %
43.5 %
Jews
4.4 %
4.7 %
4.9 %
0.6 %
Muslims
1.3 %
0 %
0 %
32.7 %
Solely in the
Empire
Empire of Austria:[118]
Religion
Austria
Latin Catholic
79.1% (20,661,000)
Eastern Catholic
12% (3,134,000)
Jewish
4.7% (1,225,000)
Eastern Orthodox
2.3% (607,000)
Lutheran
1.9% (491,000)
Other or no religion
14,000
Solely in the Kingdom of Hungary:[119]
Religion
Hungary
Hungary proper & Fiume
Croatia
Croatia & Slavonia
Latin Catholic
49.3% (9,010,305)
71.6% (1,877,833)
Calvinist
14.3% (2,603,381)
0.7% (17,948)
Eastern Orthodox
12.8% (2,333,979)
24.9% (653,184)
Eastern Catholic
11.0% (2,007,916)
0.7% (17,592)
Lutheran
7.1% (1,306,384)
1.3% (33,759)
Jewish
5.0% (911,227)
0.8% (21,231)
Unitarian
0.4% (74,275)
0.0% (21)
Other or no religion
0.1% (17,066)
0.0 (386)
Largest cities[edit]
Data: census in 1910[120]
Austrian Empire
Rank
Current English name
Contemporary official name[121]
Other
Present-day country
Population in 1910
Present-day population
1.
Vienna
Wien
Bécs, Beč, Dunaj
Austria
2,083,630 (city without the suburb 1,481,970)
1,840,573 (Metro: 2,600,000)
2.
Prague
Prag, Praha
Prága
Czech Republic
668,000 (city without the suburb 223,741)
1,267,449 (Metro: 2,156,097)
3.
Trieste
Triest
Trieszt, Trst
Italy
229,510
204,420
4.
Lviv
Lemberg, Lwów
Ilyvó, Львів, Lvov, Львов
Ukraine
206,113
728,545
5.
Kraków
Krakau, Kraków
Krakkó, Krakov
Poland
151,886
762,508
6.
Graz
Grác, Gradec
Austria
151,781
280,020
7.
Brno
Brünn, Brno
Berén, Börön, Börénvásár
Czech Republic
125,737
377,028
8.
Chernivtsi
Czernowitz
Csernyivci, Cernăuți, Чернівці
Ukraine
87,100
242,300
9.
Plzeň
Pilsen, Plzeň
Pilzen
Czech Republic
80,343
169,858
10.
Linz
Linec
Austria
67,817
200,841
Kingdom of Hungary
Rank
Current English name
Contemporary official name[121]
Other
Present-day country
Population in 1910
Present-day population
1.
Budapest
Budimpešta
Hungary
1,232,026 (city without the suburb 880,371)
1,735,711 (Metro: 3,303,786)
2.
Szeged
Szegedin, Segedin
Hungary
118,328
170,285
3.
Subotica
Szabadka
Суботица
Serbia
94,610
105,681
4.
Debrecen
Hungary
92,729
208,016
5.
Zagreb
Zágráb, Agram
Croatia
79,038
790,017
6.
Bratislava
Pozsony
Pressburg, Prešporok
Slovakia
78,223
425,167
7.
Timișoara
Temesvár
Temeswar
Romania
72,555
319,279
8.
Oradea
Nagyvárad
Großwardein
Romania
64,169
196,367
9.
Arad
Arad
Romania
63,166
159,074
10.
Cluj-Napoca
Kolozsvár
Klausenburg
Romania
60,808
324,576
Education[edit]
Austrian Empire[edit]
Primary and secondary schools
The organization of the Austrian elementary schools was based on the
principle of compulsory school attendance, free education, and the
imparting of public instruction in the child's own language. Side by
side with these existed private schools. The proportion of children
attending private schools to those attending the public elementary
schools in 1912 was 144,000 to 4.5 millions, i.e. a thirtieth part.
Hence the accusation of denationalizing children through the
Schulvereine must be accepted with caution. The expenses of education
were distributed as follows: the communes built the schoolhouses, the
political sub-districts (Bezirke) paid the teachers, the Crown
territory gave a grant, and the State appointed the inspectors. Since
the State supervised the schools without maintaining them, it was able
to increase its demands without being hampered by financial
considerations. It is remarkable that the difference between the State
educational estimates in
Austria
Austria and in
Hungary
Hungary was one of 9.3
millions in the former as opposed to 67.6 in the latter. Under
Austria, since everywhere that 40 scholars of one nationality were to
be found within a radius of 5 km. a school had to be set up in
which their language was used, national schools were assured even to
linguistic minorities. It is true that this mostly happened at the
expense of the German industrial communities, since the Slav labourers
as immigrants acquired schools in their own language. The number of
elementary schools increased from 19,016 in two to 24,713 in 1913; the
number of scholars from 3,49 0, 000 in 1900 to 4,630,000 in 1913.[122]
Universities in Austrian Empire
The first University in the Austrian half of the
Empire
Empire (Charles
University) was founded by H.R. Emperor Charles IV in
Prague
Prague in 1347.
The second oldest university (University of Vienna) was founded by
Duke Rudolph IV in 1365.
The higher educational establishments, which in the middle of the 19th
century had had a predominantly German character, underwent in Galicia
a conversion into Polish national institutions, in
Bohemia
Bohemia and Moravia
a separation into German and Czech ones. Thus Germans,
Czechs
Czechs and
Poles were provided for. But now the smaller nations also made their
voices heard: the Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians
demanded at first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of
East Galicia, a national partition of the Polish university existing
there. Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian
demonstrations and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were
no longer content with the reversion of a few separate professorial
chairs, and with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on
28 January 1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing
to the war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a
university of their own on grounds of population (in 19to they
numbered 783,000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of
their ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty
of laws should be created; the difficulty lay in the choice of the
place. The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to
let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover the
Southern Sla y s of the city wished it kept free from an Italian
educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a
compromise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation
to be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years
to Italian national territory. The German National Union
(Nationalverband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the
Italian university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club
demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces
should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous foundation
of Slovene professorial chairs in
Prague
Prague and Cracow, and preliminary
steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav university in Laibach.
But in spite of the constant renewal of negotiations for a compromise
it was impossible to arrive at any agreement, until the outbreak of
war left all the projects for a Ruthenian university at Lemberg, a
Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech one in Moravia, unrealized.
Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
Primary and secondary schools
One of the first measures of newly established Hungarian government
was to provide supplementary schools of a non-denominational
character. By a law passed in 1868 attendance at school is obligatory
on all children between the ages of 6 and 12 years. The communes or
parishes are bound to maintain elementary schools, and they are
entitled to levy an additional tax of 5% on the state taxes for their
maintenance. But the number of state-aided elementary schools is
continually increasing, as the spread of the Magyar language to the
other races through the medium of the elementary schools is one of the
principal concerns of the Hungarian government, and is vigorously
pursued.' In 1902 there were in
Hungary
Hungary 18,729 elementary schools with
32,020 teachers, attended by 2,573,377 pupils, figures which compare
favourably with those of 1877, when there were 15,486 schools with
20,717 teachers, attended by 1,559,636 pupils. In about 61% of these
schools the language used was exclusively Magyar, in about 6 20% it
was mixed, and in the remainder some non-Magyar language was used. In
1902, 80.56% of the children of school age actually attended school.
Since 1891 infant schools, for children between the ages of 3 and 6
years, have been maintained either by the communes or by the state.
The public instruction of
Hungary
Hungary contains three other groups of
educational institutions: middle or secondary schools, " high schools
" and technical schools. The middle schools comprise classical schools
(gymnasia) which are preparatory for the universities and other " high
schools," and modern schools (Realschulen) preparatory for the
technical schools. Their course of study is generally eight years, and
they are maintained mostly by the state. The state-maintained gymnasia
are mostly of recent foundation, but some schools maintained by the
various churches have been in existence for three, or sometimes four,
centuries. The number of middle schools in 1902 was 243 with 4705
teachers, attended by 71,788 pupils; in 1880 their number was 185,
attended by 40,747 pupils.
Universities in Kingdom of Hungary
In the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the
troops of Péter Csák and it was never rebuilt. A university was
established by Louis I of
Hungary
Hungary in
Pécs
Pécs in 1367. Sigismund
established a university at Óbuda in 1395. Another, Universitas
Istropolitana, was established 1465 in
Pozsony
Pozsony (now
Bratislava
Bratislava in
Slovakia) by Mattias Corvinus. None of these medieval universities
survived the Ottoman wars. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635
and moved to
Buda
Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University
today. The world's first institute of technology was founded in
Selmecbánya, Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary (since 1920 Banská Štiavnica, now
Slovakia) in 1735. Its legal successor is the University of
Miskolc
Miskolc in
Hungary. The
Budapest
Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) is
considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with
university rank and structure. Its legal predecessor the Institutum
Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II.
The high schools include the universities, of which
Hungary
Hungary possesses
Five, all maintained by the state: at
Budapest
Budapest (founded in 1635), at
Kolozsvár (founded in 1872), and at
Zagreb
Zagreb (founded in 1874). Newer
universities were established in
Debrecen
Debrecen in 1912, and Pozsony
university was reestablished after a half millennium in 1912. They
have four faculties: of theology, law, philosophy and medicine (the
university at
Zagreb
Zagreb was without a faculty of medicine). There are
besides ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were
attended by 1569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in
1844, which contains four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1772
pupils, is also considered a high school. There were in
Hungary
Hungary in
1900 forty-nine high theological colleges, twenty-nine Roman Catholic;
five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish.
Among special schools the principal mining schools are at
Selmeczbánya, Nagyág and Felsőbánya; the principal agricultural
colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvár; and there are a school of
forestry at Selmeczbánya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Déva
and Zagreb, and a naval school at Fiume. There are besides an adequate
number of training institutes for teachers, a great number of schools
of commerce, several art schools – for design, painting, sculpture,
music.
Military[edit]
Main articles: Austro-Hungarian Army, Austro-Hungarian Navy,
Austro-Hungarian Air Force, and Military Frontier
k.u.k.
Infantry
Infantry 1898
The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was similar in
both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal
and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military
force was composed of the common army; the special armies, namely the
Austrian Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honved, which were separate
national institutions, and the
Landsturm
Landsturm or levy-en masse. As stated
above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint
minister of war, while the special armies were under the
administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The
yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military
bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, and was
generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the
last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which
Austria
Austria furnished 59,211 men, and
Hungary
Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men
were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the
Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years (three years in
the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two
in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the
same total period of service was spent in various special
reserves.[123]
The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all
military affairs, except those of the
Austrian Landwehr
Austrian Landwehr and of the
Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national
defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the
army was vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures
regarding the whole army.[123]
The Austro-Hungarian navy was mainly a coast defence force, and also
included a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It was administered by
the naval department of the ministry of war.[124]
World War I[edit]
Further information: Causes of World War I,
Croatia
Croatia during World War
I, and
Hungary
Hungary in World War I
Preludes: Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]
Main article:
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina in Austria-Hungary
Russian
Pan-Slavic
Pan-Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so
pressured the tsar's government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire
in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians.[30] Unable to
mediate between the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire and Russia over the control of
Serbia, Austria-
Hungary
Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between
the two powers escalated into a war. With help from
Romania
Romania and
Greece, Russia defeated the Ottomans and with the Treaty of San
Stefano tried to create a large pro-Russian Bulgaria. This treaty
sparked an international uproar that almost resulted in a general
European war. Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and Britain feared that a large Bulgaria
would become a Russian satellite that would enable the tsar to
dominate the Balkans. British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli moved
warships into position against Russia to halt the advance of Russian
influence in the eastern Mediterranean so close to Britain's route
through the Suez Canal.[125]
Recruits from Bosnia-Herzegovina, including
Muslim
Muslim
Bosniaks
Bosniaks (31%),
were drafted into special units of the
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army as early
as 1879 and were commended for their bravery in service of the
Austrian emperor, winning more medals than any other unit. The jaunty
military march Die Bosniaken Kommen was composed in their honor by
Eduard Wagnes.[126]
The
Congress of Berlin
Congress of Berlin rolled back the Russian victory by partitioning
the large Bulgarian state that Russia had carved out of Ottoman
territory and denying any part of
Bulgaria
Bulgaria full independence from the
Ottomans.
Austria
Austria occupied
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina as a way of gaining
clout in the Balkans. Serbia,
Montenegro
Montenegro and
Romania
Romania became fully
independent. Nonetheless the Balkans remained a site of political
unrest with teeming ambition for independence and great power
rivalries. At the
Congress of Berlin
Congress of Berlin in 1878
Gyula Andrássy (Minister
of Foreign Affairs) managed to force Russia to retreat from further
demands in the Balkans. As a result,
Greater Bulgaria
Greater Bulgaria was broken up
and Serbian independence was guaranteed.[127] In that year, with
Britain's support, Austria-
Hungary
Hungary stationed troops in Bosnia to
prevent the Russians from expanding into nearby Serbia. In another
measure to keep the Russians out of the Balkans Austria-
Hungary
Hungary formed
an alliance, the Mediterranean Entente, with Britain and
Italy
Italy in 1887
and concluded mutual defence pacts with Germany in 1879 and
Romania
Romania in
1883 against a possible Russian attack.[128] Following the Congress of
Berlin the European powers attempted to guarantee stability through a
complex series of alliances and treaties.
Excerpt from a 1913 Austro-Hungarian order, that banned numerous
social-democratic and ethnic Serb cultural societies in
Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Anxious about Balkan instability and Russian aggression, and to
counter French interests in Europe, Austria-
Hungary
Hungary forged a defensive
alliance with Germany in October 1879 and in May 1882. In October 1882
Italy
Italy joined this partnership in the Triple Alliance largely because
of Italy's imperial rivalries with France. Tensions between Russia and
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary remained high, so Bismarck replaced the League of the
Three Emperors with the
Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to keep the
Habsburgs from recklessly starting a war over Pan-Slavism.[129] The
Sandžak-Raška / Novibazar region was under Austro-Hungarian
occupation between 1878 and 1909, when it was returned to the Ottoman
Empire, before being ultimately divided between kingdoms of Montenegro
and Serbia.[130]
On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro-Hungarian forces
occupied
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 and the monarchy
eventually annexed
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common
holding of
Cisleithania
Cisleithania and
Transleithania
Transleithania under the control of the
Imperial & Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to
either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in
Vienna
Vienna to contemplate combining
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina with
Croatia
Croatia to
form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz
Joseph's brother, Maximilian (1867), and his only son, Rudolf made the
Emperor's nephew, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne. The Archduke
was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to
limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy.[131]
Status of Bosnia-Herzegovina[edit]
A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the
Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy in 1908 promised these lands constitutional
institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil
rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of
a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a
constitution was promulgated in 1910. This included a Territorial
Statute (Landesstatut) with the setting up of a Territorial Diet,
regulations for the election and procedure of the Diet, a law of
associations, a law of public meetings, and a law dealing with the
district councils. According to this statute Bosnia-Herzegovina formed
a single administrative territory under the responsible direction and
supervision of the Ministry of Finance of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy in Vienna.
The administration of the country, together with the carrying out of
the laws, devolved upon the Territorial Government in Sarajevo, which
was subordinate and responsible to the Common Ministry of Finance. The
existing judicial and administrative authorities of the Territory
retained their previous organization and functions. That statute
introduced the modern rights and laws in Bosnia – Herzegovina, and
it guaranteed generally the civil rights of the inhabitants of the
Territory, namely citizenship, personal liberty, protection by the
competent judicial authorities, liberty of creed and conscience,
preservation of the national individuality and language, freedom of
speech, freedom of learning and education, inviolability of the
domicile, secrecy of posts and telegraphs, inviolability of property,
the right of petition, and finally the right of holding meetings.[132]
The Diet (Sabor) of Bosnia-Herzegovina set up consisted of a single
Chamber, elected on the principle of the representation of interests.
It numbered 92 members. Of these 20 consisted of representatives of
all the religious confessions, the president of the Supreme Court, the
president of the Chamber of Advocates, the president of the Chamber of
Commerce, and the mayor of Sarajevo. In addition to these were 72
deputies, elected by three curiae or electoral groups. The first curia
included the large landowners, the highest taxpayers, and people who
had reached a certain standard of education without regard to the
amount they paid in taxes. To the second curia belonged inhabitants of
the towns not qualified to vote in the first; to the third, country
dwellers disqualified in the same way. With this curial system was
combined the grouping of the mandates and of the electors according to
the three dominant creeds (Catholic, Serbian Orthodox, Muslim). To the
adherents of other creeds the right was conceded of voting with one or
other of the religious electoral bodies within the curia to which they
belonged.[11]
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip,
although some[133][134] believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a
bystander.
Sarajevo
Sarajevo assassination[edit]
Main article: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
On 28 June 1914,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital,
Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip,
Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso
Čubrilović) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the
Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke's motorcade
would pass. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. It
injured some people nearby, and Franz Ferdinand's convoy could carry
on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them
quickly. About an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from
a visit at the
Sarajevo
Sarajevo Hospital, the convoy took a wrong turn into a
street where
Gavrilo Princip
Gavrilo Princip by coincidence stood. With a pistol,
Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The
reaction among the Austrian people was mild, almost indifferent. As
historian Z.A.B. Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make
any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday [June 28 and 29], the
crowds in
Vienna
Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had
happened."[135]
Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the Anti-Serb riots in
Sarajevo, 29 June 1914.
Escalation of violence in Bosnia[edit]
Main articles: Anti-Serb riots in
Sarajevo
Sarajevo and Schutzkorps
The assassination excessively intensified the existing traditional
religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo
itself, Austrian authorities encouraged[136][137] violence against the
Serb residents, which resulted in the Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo, in
which Catholic
Croats
Croats and Bosnian
Muslims
Muslims killed two and damaged
numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer
Ivo Andrić
Ivo Andrić referred to the
violence as the "
Sarajevo
Sarajevo frenzy of hate."[138] Violent actions
against ethnic
Serbs
Serbs were organized not only in
Sarajevo
Sarajevo but also in
many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day
Croatia
Croatia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina.[139] Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia
and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500
prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. 460
Serbs
Serbs were
sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim[140][141][142] special
militia known as the
Schutzkorps
Schutzkorps was established and carried out the
persecution of Serbs.[143]
Decision for war[edit]
MÁVAG armoured train in 1914
Main article: Causes of World War I
While the empire's military spending had not even doubled since the
1878 Congress of Berlin, Germany's spending had risen fivefold, and
the British, Russian, and French expenditures threefold. The empire
had lost ethnic Italian areas to
Piedmont
Piedmont because of nationalist
movements that had swept through Italy, and many Austro-Hungarians
perceived as imminent the threat of losing to
Serbia
Serbia the southern
territories inhabited by Slavs.
Serbia
Serbia had recently gained
considerable territory in the
Second Balkan War
Second Balkan War of 1913, causing much
distress in government circles in
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest. Former
ambassador and foreign minister Count
Alois Aehrenthal
Alois Aehrenthal had assumed
that any future war would be in the Balkan region.
Hungarian prime minister and political scientist István
Tisza
Tisza opposed
the expansion of the monarchy on the Balkan (see
Bosnian crisis
Bosnian crisis in
1908), because "the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy already had too many Slavs", which
would further threaten the integrity of the Dual Monarchy.[144]
In March 1914,
Tisza
Tisza wrote a memorandum to Emperor Franz Joseph. His
letter had strongly apocalyptic predictive and embittered tone. He
used exactly the hitherto unknown word "Weltkrieg" (means World War)
phrase in his letter. "It is my firm conviction that Germany's two
neighbors [Russia and France] are carefully proceeding with military
preparations, but will not start the war so long as they have not
attained a grouping of the Balkan states against us that confronts the
monarchy with an attack from three sides and pins down the majority of
our forces on our eastern and southern front." [145]
On the day of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Tisza
immediately traveled to
Vienna
Vienna where he met Minister of Foreign
Affairs
Count Leopold Berchtold
Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad
von Hötzendorf. They proposed to solve the dispute with arms,
attacking Serbia.
Tisza
Tisza proposed to give the government of
Serbia
Serbia time
to take a stand as to whether it was involved in the organisation of
the murder and proposed a peaceful resolution, arguing that the
international situation would settle soon. Returning to Budapest, he
wrote to Emperor Franz Joseph saying he would not take any
responsibility for the armed conflict because there was no proof that
Serbia
Serbia had plotted the assassination.
Tisza
Tisza opposed a war with Serbia,
stating (correctly, as it turned out) that any war with the
Serbs
Serbs was
bound to trigger a war with Russia and hence a general European
war.[146] He did not trust in the Italian alliance, due to the
political aftermath of the Second Italian War of Independence. He
thought that even a successful Austro-Hungarian war would be
disastrous for the integrity of Kingdom of Hungary, where Hungary
would be the next victim of Austrian politics. After a successful war
against Serbia,
Tisza
Tisza foresaw a possible Austrian military attack
against the Kingdom of Hungary, where the
Austrians
Austrians want to break up
the territory of Hungary.[147]
Some members of the government, such as Count Franz Conrad von
Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for
some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor, 84 years old and an
enemy of all adventures, disapproved.
The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire sent ambassador
László Szőgyény to Potsdam, where he inquired about the standpoint
of the German Emperor on 5 July. Szőgyény described what happened in
a secret report to
Vienna
Vienna later that day:
"I presented His Majesty [Wilhelm] with [Franz Joseph’s] letter and
the attached memorandum. The Kaiser read both papers quite carefully
in my presence. First, His Majesty assured me that he had expected us
to take firm action against Serbia, but he had to concede that, as a
result of the conflicts facing [Franz Joseph], he needed to take into
account a serious complication in Europe, which is why he did not wish
to give any definite answer prior to consultations with the
chancellor....
When, after our déjeuner, I once again emphasized the gravity of the
situation, His Majesty authorized me to report to [Franz Joseph] that
in this case, too, we could count on Germany’s full support. As
mentioned, he first had to consult with the Chancellor, but he did not
have the slightest doubt that Herr von Bethmann Hollweg would fully
agree with him, particularly with regard to action on our part against
Serbia. In his [Wilhelm’s] opinion, though, there was no need to
wait patiently before taking action. The Kaiser said that Russia’s
stance would always be a hostile one, but he had been prepared for
this for many years, and even if war broke out between Austria-Hungary
and Russia, we could rest assured that Germany would take our side, in
line with its customary loyalty. According to the Kaiser, as things
stood now, Russia was not at all ready for war. It would certainly
have to think hard before making a call to arms."[148]
But now the leaders of Austria-Hungary, especially General Count
Leopold von Berchtold, backed by its ally Germany, decided to confront
Serbia
Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the
assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands
called the July Ultimatum,[149] expecting
Serbia
Serbia would never accept.
When
Serbia
Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially
accepted the remaining one, Austria-
Hungary
Hungary declared war. Franz Joseph
I finally followed the urgent counsel of his top advisers.
Over the course of July and August 1914, these events caused the start
of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off
a series of counter-mobilizations. In support of his German ally, on
Thursday, 6 August 1914, the Emperor Franz Joseph signed the
declaration of war on Russia.
Italy
Italy initially remained neutral,
although it had an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1915, it switched
to the side of the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from its
former ally.[150]
Wartime foreign policy[edit]
Further information: Diplomatic history of World War I
The Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic
role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by
Germany.[151][152] The only goal was to punish
Serbia
Serbia and try to stop
the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Instead as
the war went on the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged
breakaway demands from minorities and the
Empire
Empire faced disintegration.
Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German
officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire
war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps
Austria
Austria would make a
separate peace from Germany.[153] The main effort was vetoed by Italy,
which had been promised large slices of
Austria
Austria for joining the Allies
in 1915.
Austria
Austria was only willing to turn over the
Trentino
Trentino region but
nothing more.[154] Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his
standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany.[155]
As the Imperial economy collapsed into severe hardship and even
starvation, its multi-ethnic army lost its morale and was increasingly
hard pressed to hold its line. In the capital cities of
Vienna
Vienna and
Budapest, the leftist and liberal movements and opposition parties
strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. As it
became apparent that the Allies would win the war, nationalist
movements, which had previously been calling for a greater degree of
autonomy for their majority areas, started demanding full
independence. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his
realm disintegrated.[156]
Homefront[edit]
See also:
Hungary
Hungary in World War I
The heavily rural
Empire
Empire did have a small industrial base, but its
major contribution was manpower and food.[157][158] Nevertheless,
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary was more urbanized (25%)[159] than its actual
opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire
(13.4%),[160]
Serbia
Serbia (13.2%)[161] or
Romania
Romania (18.8%).[162]
Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire had also more industrialized
economy[163] and higher GDP per capita[164] than the Kingdom of Italy,
which was the economically the far most developed actual opponent of
the Empire.
On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel.
The hog population fell 90 percent, as the dwindling supplies of ham
and bacon percent of the Army. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural
base, was somewhat better fed. The Army conquered productive
agricultural areas in
Romania
Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food
shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the
diverse nationalities gave up on the
Empire
Empire and looked for ways to
establish their own nation states.[165]
Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping
out the cash savings of the middle-class. In terms of war damage to
the economy, the war used up about 20 percent of the GDP. The dead
soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and
the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared all the major
countries in the war, Austria's death and casualty rate was toward the
high-end.[166]
By summer 1918, "Green Cadres" of army deserters formed armed bands in
the hills of Croatia-
Slavonia
Slavonia and civil authority disintegrated. By
late October violence and massive looting erupted and there were
efforts to form peasant republics. However The Croatian political
leadership was focused on creating a new state (Yugoslavia) and worked
with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the
uprisings.[167]
Military events[edit]
The Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during
the WW1.[168] General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the
Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old
to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von
Österreich-Teschen as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant),
but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions.
Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces
until Emperor Karl I took the supreme command himself in late 1916 and
dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic
conditions on the homefront deteriorated rapidly. The
Empire
Empire depended
on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of
millions of men who are now in the Army. Food production fell, the
transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production
could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions.
Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough.
Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups
of
Empire
Empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support
of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the Empire
and setting up autonomous national states based on historic
language-based cultures. The new Emperor sought peace terms from the
Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy.[169]
Serbian front 1914–1916[edit]
Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I)
At the start of the war, the army was divided in two: the smaller part
attacked
Serbia
Serbia while the larger part fought against the formidable
Imperial Russian Army. The invasion of
Serbia
Serbia in 1914 was a disaster:
by the end of the year, the
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no
territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men.
However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the
Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of
1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips
made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb soldiers
were transported to Corfu, where they waited for the chance of the
victory of Allied Powers to reclaim their country.
Corfu
Corfu hosted the
Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia, and served
as a supply base to the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of
Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels
from
Corfu
Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000
relieved a much smaller army at the
Macedonian Front
Macedonian Front and fought
alongside British and French troops.[170]
Russian front 1914–1917[edit]
Main article: Eastern Front (World War I)
Siege of Przemyśl
Siege of Przemyśl in 1915
On the Eastern front, the war started out equally poorly. The
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the
great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915.
The
Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive
Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to
relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the
Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the
Central Powers
Central Powers resulted
in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines,
and their 100 km (62 mi) long retreat into Russia. The
Russian Third Army perished. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian
Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the
successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians
focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian army in the Brusilov
Offensive, recognizing the numerical inferiority of the
Austro-Hungarian army. By the end of September 1916, Austria-Hungary
mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian
advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took
heavy losses (about 1 million men) and never recovered. The Battle of
Zborov (1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak
Legions, who fought for the independence of
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia against the
Austro-Hungarian army. However the huge losses in men and material
inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to
the revolutions of 1917, and it caused an economic crash in the
Russian Empire.
Italian front 1915–1918[edit]
Main article: Italian Front (World War I)
The military cemetery of Redipuglia (Italy), the resting place of
approximately 100,000 Italian soldiers dead in battles of the First
World War.
In May 1915,
Italy
Italy attacked Austria-Hungary.
Italy
Italy was the only
military opponent of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary which had a similar degree of
industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous
(~1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered poor
leadership, training and organization.
Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna
marched his army towards the
Isonzo
Isonzo river, hoping to seize Ljubljana,
and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army
were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five
months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody
and exhausting for both the contenders.[171] On 15 May 1916, the
Austrian
Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the
Strafexpedition ("punitive expedition"): the
Austrians
Austrians broke through
the opposing front and occupied the Asiago plateau. The Italians
managed to resist and in a counteroffensive, seized
Gorizia
Gorizia on 9
August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso, a few kilometres
away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive
trench warfare (analogous to the Western front one) ensued. As the
Russian Empire
Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the
Bolshevik Revolution
Bolshevik Revolution and
Russians ended their involvement in the war, Germans and Austrians
were able to move on the Western and Southern fronts much manpower
from the erstwhile Eastern fighting. On 24 October 1917, Austrians
(now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new
infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than 100 km
(62.14 mi) in the direction of
Venice
Venice and gained considerable
supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave river. Italy,
although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow: a
coalition government under
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy
also enjoyed support by the Entente powers: by 1918, large amounts of
war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French
divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone.[172] Cadorna was
replaced by General Armando Diaz; under his command, the Italians
retook the initiative and won the decisive Battle of the Piave river
(15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian
soldiers were killed. The multiethnic Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire started
to disintegrate, leaving its army alone on the battlefields. The final
battle was at Vittorio Veneto; after 4 days of stiff resistance,
Italian troops crossed the Piave River, and after losing 90,000 men
the defeated Austrian troops retreated in disarray pursued by the
Italians. The Italians captured 428,000 Austrian-Hungarian
soldiers,[citation needed] 24 of whom were generals,[173] 5,600
cannons and mortars, 4,000 machine guns.[174] The military breakdown
also marked the start of the rebellion for the numerous ethnicities
who made up the multiethnic Empire, as they refused to keep on
fighting for a cause which now appeared senseless. These events marked
the end of Austria-Hungary, which collapsed on 31 October 1918. The
armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November.
Romanian front 1916[edit]
Main article:
Romania
Romania during World War I
On 27 August 1916,
Romania
Romania declared war against Austria-Hungary. The
Romanian Army crossed the borders of Eastern
Hungary
Hungary (Transylvania).
By November 1916, the
Central Powers
Central Powers had defeated the Romanian Army
and occupied the southern and eastern parts of Romania. On 6 December
the
Central Powers
Central Powers captured Bucharest, the Romanian capital city.[175]
Whereas the German army realized it needed close cooperation from the
homefront, Habsburg officers saw themselves as entirely separate from
the civilian world, and superior to it. When they occupied productive
areas, such as Romania[citation needed], they seized food stocks and
other supplies for their own purposes, and blocked any shipments
intended for civilians back in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The result
was that the officers lived well, as the civilians began to starve.
Vienna
Vienna even transferred training units to
Serbia
Serbia and
Poland
Poland for the
sole purpose of feeding them. In all, the Army obtained about 15
percent of its cereal needs from occupied territories.[176]
Role of Hungary[edit]
War memorial in Păuleni-Ciuc, Romania.
Despite of Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary consisted only 42% of the
Austro-Hungarian population,[177] the thin majority – more than 3.8
million soldiers – of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were
conscripted from Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary during the WW1. Roughly 600,000
soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in
the war.[178]
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided
sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war.[127]
This was shown in a transition of power after which the Hungarian
prime minister, Count István Tisza, and foreign minister, Count
István Burián, had decisive influence over the internal and external
affairs of the monarchy.[127] By late 1916, food supply from Hungary
became intermittent and the government sought an armistice with the
Entente powers. However, this failed as Britain and
France
France no longer
had any regard for the integrity of the monarchy because of
Austro-Hungarian support for Germany.[127]
Analysis of defeat[edit]
The setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be
attributed to a large extent to Austria-
Hungary
Hungary becoming a military
satellite of
Imperial Germany
Imperial Germany from the first day of the war. They were
made worse by the incompetence of the Austrian high command.[127]
After attacking Serbia, its forces soon had to be withdrawn to protect
its eastern frontier against Russia's invasion, while German units
were engaged in fighting on the Western Front. This resulted in a
greater than expected loss of men in the invasion of Serbia.[127]
Furthermore, it became evident that the Austrian high command had had
no plans for a possible continental war and that the army and navy
were also ill-equipped to handle such a conflict.[127]
From 1916, the Austro-Hungarian war effort became more and more
subordinated to the direction of German planners. The
Austrians
Austrians viewed
the German army favorably, on the other hand by 1916 the general
belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with
Austria-Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational
capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by
supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the
army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages
and customs.
The last two successes for the Austrians, the Romanian Offensive and
the Caporetto Offensive, were German-assisted operations. As the Dual
Monarchy became more politically unstable, it became more and more
dependent on German assistance. The majority of its people, other than
Hungarians
Hungarians and German Austrians, became increasingly restless.
In 1917, the Eastern front of the Entente Powers completely collapsed.
The Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries.
By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated. Leftist and pacifist
political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in
the army had become commonplace. During the Italian battles, the
Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. On 31
October
Hungary
Hungary ended the personal union with Austria, officially
dissolving the Monarchy. At the last Italian offensive, the
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army took to the field without any food and munition
supply, and fought without any political supports for a de facto
non-existent empire. On the end of the decisive joint Italian, British
and French offensive at Vittorio Veneto, the disintegrated
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary signed the
Armistice of Villa Giusti
Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November
1918.
The government had failed badly on the homefront. Historian Alexander
Watson reports:
across central Europe... The majority lived in a state of advanced
misery by the spring of 1918, and conditions later worsened, for the
summer of 1918 saw both the drop in food supplied to the levels of the
'turnip winter', and the onset of the
1918 flu pandemic
1918 flu pandemic that killed at
least 20 million worldwide. Society was relieved, exhausted and
yearned for peace.[179]
Dissolution[edit]
The
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg.png)
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the
autumn of 1918. In the capital cities of
Vienna
Vienna and Budapest, the
leftist and liberal movements and politicians (the opposition parties)
strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. These
leftist or left-liberal pro-Entente maverick parties opposed the
monarchy as a form of government and considered themselves
internationalist rather than patriotic. Eventually, the German defeat
and the minor revolutions in
Vienna
Vienna and
Budapest
Budapest gave political power
to the left/liberal political parties. As it became apparent that the
Allied powers would win World War I, nationalist movements, which had
previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various
areas, started pressing for full independence. The Emperor had lost
much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated.[180]
Alexander Watson argues that, "The Habsburg regime's doom was sealed
when Wilson's response to the note, sent two and a half weeks earlier,
arrived on 20 October." Wilson rejected the continuation of the dual
monarchy as a negotiable possibility.[181] As one of his Fourteen
Points, President
Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson demanded that the nationalities of
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary have the "freest opportunity to autonomous
development". In response, Emperor Karl I agreed to reconvene the
Imperial
Parliament
Parliament in 1917 and allow the creation of a confederation
with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the
leaders of these national groups rejected the idea; they deeply
distrusted
Vienna
Vienna and were now determined to get independence.
The revolt of ethnic Czech units in
Austria
Austria in May 1918 was brutally
suppressed. It was considered as mutiny by the code of military
justice
On 14 October 1918, Foreign Minister
Baron
Baron
István Burián
István Burián von
Rajecz[182] asked for an armistice based on the Fourteen Points. In an
apparent attempt to demonstrate good faith, Emperor Karl issued a
proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918") two days later
which would have significantly altered the structure of the Austrian
half of the monarchy. The Polish majority regions of Galicia and
Lodomeria
Lodomeria were to be granted the option of seceding from the empire,
and it was understood that they would join their ethnic brethren in
Russia and Germany in resurrecting a Polish state. The rest of
Cisleithania
Cisleithania was transformed into a federal union composed of four
parts—German, Czech, South Slav and Ukrainian. Each of these was to
be governed by a national council that would negotiate the future of
the empire with Vienna.
Trieste
Trieste was to receive a special status. No
such proclamation could be issued in Hungary, where Hungarian
aristocrats still believed they could subdue other nationalities and
maintain the "Holy Kingdom of St. Stephen".
It was a dead letter. Four days later, on 18 October United States
Secretary of State
Robert Lansing
Robert Lansing replied that the Allies were now
committed to the causes of the Czechs,
Slovaks
Slovaks and South Slavs.
Therefore, Lansing said, autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth
of the
Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points – was no longer enough and Washington could
not deal on the basis of the
Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points anymore. In fact, a
Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14
October. The
South Slavs
South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already
declared in favor of uniting with
Serbia
Serbia in a large South Slav state
by way of the 1917
Corfu
Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav
Committee. Indeed, the Croatians had begun disregarding orders from
Budapest
Budapest earlier in October.
The Lansing note was, in effect, the death certificate of
Austria-Hungary. The national councils had already begun acting more
or less as provisional governments of independent countries. With
defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle
of Vittorio
Veneto
Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took
over command in
Prague
Prague on 28 October (later declared the birthday of
Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few
days. On 30 October, the
Slovaks
Slovaks followed in Martin. On 29 October,
the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria-Hungary
proclaimed the State of Slovenes,
Croats
Croats and Serbs. They also declared
their ultimate intention was to unite with
Serbia
Serbia and
Montenegro
Montenegro in a
large South Slav state. On the same day, the
Czechs
Czechs and Slovaks
formally proclaimed the establishment of
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia as an
independent state.
In Hungary, the most prominent opponent of continued union with
Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi, seized power in the Aster Revolution
on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his
Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to cancel
the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian
state.
By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm
but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's
authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state
council.[183] Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch,
concluded that Karl was in an impossible situation, and persuaded Karl
that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his
right to exercise sovereign authority.
Consequences[edit]
On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which
he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the
state. He also renounced the right to participate in Austrian affairs
of state. He also dismissed Lammasch and his government from office
and released the officials in the Austrian half of the empire from
their oath of loyalty to him. Two days later, he issued a similar
proclamation for Hungary. However, he did not abdicate, remaining
available in the event the people of either state should recall him.
For all intents and purposes, this was the end of Habsburg rule.
Karl's refusal to abdicate was ultimately irrelevant. On the day after
he announced his withdrawal from Austria's politics, the
German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German
Austria. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the
Hungarian Democratic Republic.
The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (between the victors of World War
I and Austria) and the
Treaty of Trianon
.jpg/600px-Signature_de_la_Paix_avec_la_Hongrie,_en_tête_Benárd_Ágost_hongrois(passant_devant_un_piquet_d'honneur_à_Versailles).jpg)
Treaty of Trianon (between the victors and
Hungary) regulated the new borders of
Austria
Austria and Hungary, leaving
both as small landlocked states. The Allies assumed without question
that the minority nationalities wanted to leave
Austria
Austria and Hungary,
and also allowed them to annex significant blocks of German- and
Hungarian-speaking territory. As a result, the Republic of Austria
lost roughly 60% of the old Austrian Empire's territory. It also had
to drop its plans for union with Germany, as it was not allowed to
unite with Germany without League approval. The restored Kingdom of
Hungary, which had replaced the republican government in 1920, lost
roughly 72% of the pre-war territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.
The decisions of the nations of the former Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and of the
victors of the Great War, contained in the heavily one-sided treaties,
had devastating political and economic effects. The previously rapid
economic growth of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy ground to a halt because the new
borders became major economic barriers. All the formerly
well-established industries, as well as the infrastructure supporting
them, were designed to satisfy the needs of an extensive realm. As a
result, the emerging countries were forced to make considerable
sacrifices to transform their economies. The treaties created major
political unease. As a result of these economic difficulties,
extremist movements gained strength; and there was no regional
superpower in central Europe.
The new Austrian state was, at least on paper, on shakier ground than
Hungary. While what was left of
Austria
Austria had been a single unit for
over 700 years, it was united only by loyalty to the Habsburgs. With
the loss of 60% of the Austrian Empire's prewar territory,
Vienna
Vienna was
now an imperial capital without an empire to support it. By
comparison,
Hungary
Hungary had been a nation and a state for over 900 years.
However, after a brief period of upheaval and the Allies' foreclosure
of union with Germany,
Austria
Austria established itself as a federal
republic. Despite the temporary
Anschluss
Anschluss with Nazi Germany, it still
survives today.
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler cited that all "Germans" - such as he and
the others from Austria, etc. - should be united with Germany.
Hungary, however, was severely disrupted by the loss of 72% of its
territory, 64% of its population and most of its natural resources.
The
Hungarian Democratic Republic
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Hungary_(1918-1919;_3-2_aspect_ratio).svg.png)
Hungarian Democratic Republic was short-lived and was temporarily
replaced by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. Romanian troops
ousted
Béla Kun
.png/440px-Bela_Kun_(cropped).png)
Béla Kun and his communist government during the
Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919.
In the summer of 1919, a Habsburg, Archduke Joseph August, became
regent, but was forced to stand down after only two weeks when it
became apparent the Allies would not recognise him.[184] Finally, in
March 1920, royal powers were entrusted to a regent, Miklós Horthy,
who had been the last commanding admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
and had helped organize the counter-revolutionary forces. It was this
government that signed the
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon under protest on 4 June
1920 at the
Grand Trianon
Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France.[185][186]
In March and again in October 1921, ill-prepared attempts by Karl to
regain the throne in
Budapest
Budapest collapsed. The initially wavering
Horthy, after receiving threats of intervention from the Allied Powers
and neighboring countries, refused his cooperation. Soon afterward,
the Hungarian government nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, effectively
dethroning the Habsburgs. Two years later,
Austria
Austria had passed the
"Habsburg Law," which not only dethroned the Habsburgs, but banned
Karl from ever returning to
Austria
Austria again.
Subsequently, the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his
family to the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he died the
following year.
Successor states[edit]
Main articles:
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon and Treaty of Saint Germain
The following successor states were formed (entirely or in part) on
the territory of the former Austria-Hungary:
German
Austria
Austria and First Austrian Republic
Hungarian Democratic Republic, Hungarian Soviet Republic, and Kingdom
of Hungary
Czecho-
Slovakia
Slovakia ("Czechoslovakia" from 1920 to 1938)
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (joined on 1 December 1918 with
the
Kingdom of Serbia
.svg/250px-State_Flag_of_Serbia_(1882-1918).svg.png)
Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats
Croats and
Slovenes, later Kingdom of Yugoslavia)
Second Polish Republic
West Ukrainian People's Republic
West Ukrainian People's Republic (united with the Ukrainian People's
Republic through Act Zluky, while its territory was fully overran by
the Second Polish Republic)
Duchy of
Bukovina
Bukovina and
Transylvania
Transylvania were joined to the Kingdom of
Romania
Austro-Hungarian lands were also ceded to the
Kingdom of Romania
Kingdom of Romania and
the Kingdom of Italy. The Principality of Liechtenstein, which had
formerly looked to
Vienna
Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defense
union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the
Austrian. In April 1919,
Vorarlberg
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Vorarlberg_(state).svg.png)
Vorarlberg – the westernmost province of
Austria
Austria – voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however,
both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result.
New hand-drawn borders of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in the
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon and
Saint Germain. (1919–1920)
New borders of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary after the
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon and Saint
Germain.
Border of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in 1914
Borders in 1914
Borders in 1920
Empire
Empire of
Austria
Austria in 1914
Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary in 1914
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1914
After-WWI borders on an ethnic map)
Territorial legacy[edit]
Austria-Hungary
Kingdoms and countries of Austria-Hungary:
Cisleithania
Cisleithania (
Empire
Empire of Austria[6]): 1. Bohemia, 2. Bukovina, 3.
Carinthia, 4. Carniola, 5. Dalmatia, 6. Galicia, 7. Küstenland, 8.
Lower Austria, 9. Moravia, 10. Salzburg, 11. Silesia, 12. Styria, 13.
Tyrol, 14. Upper Austria, 15. Vorarlberg;
Transleithania
Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary[6]): 16.
Hungary
Hungary proper 17.
Croatia-Slavonia; 18.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian
condominium)
The following present-day countries and parts of countries were within
the boundaries of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary when the empire was dissolved:
Empire
Empire of
Austria
Austria (Cisleithania):
Austria
Austria (except Burgenland)
Czech Republic
Czech Republic (except the Hlučínsko area)
Slovenia
Slovenia (except Prekmurje)
Italy
Italy (Trentino, South Tyrol, parts of the province of Belluno and
small portions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Croatia
Croatia (Dalmatia, Istria)
Poland
Poland (voivodeships of Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, southernmost part
of
Silesia
Silesia (Bielsko and Cieszyn))
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine (oblasts of Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil (except its
northern corner) and most of the oblast of Chernivtsi)
Romania
Romania (county of Suceava)
Montenegro
Montenegro (bay of Boka Kotorska, the coast and the immediate
hinterland around the cities of Budva, Petrovac and Sutomore)
Kingdom of
Hungary
Hungary (Transleithania):
Hungary;
Slovakia
Austria
Austria (Burgenland)
Slovenia
Slovenia (Prekmurje)
Croatia
Croatia (Slavonia, Central Croatia, southern parts of the pre-1918
Baranya and Zala counties – today's Croatian part of
Baranja
Baranja and
Međimurje county)
Ukraine
Ukraine (oblast of Zakarpattia)
Romania
Romania (region of
Transylvania
Transylvania and Partium)
Serbia
Serbia (autonomous province of
Vojvodina
Vojvodina and northern
Belgrade
Belgrade region)
Poland
Poland (Polish parts of Orava and Spiš)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina (the villages of Zavalje,
Mali Skočaj
Mali Skočaj and
Veliki Skočaj
Veliki Skočaj including the immediate surrounding area west of the
city of Bihać)
Austro-Hungarian Condominium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Montenegro
Montenegro (
Sutorina
Sutorina – western part of the Municipality of Herceg
Novi between present borders with
Croatia
Croatia (SW) and Bosnia and
Herzegovina (NW), Adriatic coast (E) and the township of Igalo (NE))
Sandžak-Raška region, Austro-Hungarian occupied 1878 until
withdrawal in 1908 whilst formally part of the Ottoman Empire
Possessions of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
The empire was unable to gain and maintain large colonies owing to its
geographical position. Its only possession outside of Europe was its
concession in Tianjin, China, which it was granted in return for
supporting the Eight-
Nation Alliance in suppressing the Boxer
Rebellion. However although the city was only an Austro-Hungarian
possession for 16 years, the Austro-
Hungarians
Hungarians left their mark on that
area of the city, in the form of architecture that still stands in the
city.[187]
Other parts of Europe had been part of the Habsburg monarchy once but
had left it before its dissolution in 1918. Prominent examples are the
regions of
Lombardy
Lombardy and
Veneto
Veneto in Italy,
Silesia
Silesia in Poland, most of
Belgium
.jpg/440px-Belgium-6015_-_Most_Photographed_Dog_in_Burges_(13902076955).jpg)
Belgium and Serbia, and parts of northern
Switzerland
Switzerland and southwestern
Germany. They persuaded the government to search out foreign
investment to build up infrastructure such as railroads. Despite these
measures, Austria-
Hungary
Hungary remained resolutely monarchist and
authoritarian.
Flags and heraldry[edit]
Flags[edit]
See also:
List of Austrian flags
List of Austrian flags and Flag of Hungary
Although Austria-
Hungary
Hungary did not have a common flag (a "national flag"
could not exist since both halves of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy consisted of
inhabitants of various nationalities), a common civil ensign
(introduced in 1869) did exist. Until 1918, the k.u.k. War Fleet
continued to carry the Austrian ensign it had used since 1786; and the
regiments of the k.u.k. Army carried the double-eagle flags they had
used before 1867, as they had a long history in many cases. New
ensigns created in 1915 had not been implemented until 1918 due to the
war. At state functions, the Austrian black-yellow and the Hungarian
red-white-green tricolor were used.
Naval ensign 1786–1918 and civil ensign 1786–1869
Civil ensign
Civil ensign 1869–1918
Naval ensign of 1915 (not implemented)
War ensign (not implemented)
Royal Hungarian maritime ensign
Austria
Austria was represented by the black-yellow flag. The Hungarian half
of the state, on the other hand, legally had no flag of its own.[188]
According to the
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement
Croatian–Hungarian Settlement (art. 62 and 63), in
all joint Croatian and Hungarian affairs symbols of both
Croatia
Croatia and
Hungary
Hungary respectively had to be used. For instance, whenever the joint
Hungarian-Croatian
Parliament
Parliament held its session in Budapest, both the
Croatian and Hungarian flags were hoisted on the parliament building
in Budapest.[189][190][191] In Vienna, in front of Schönbrunn Palace,
the black and yellow flag was flown for Cisleithania, while both
Croatian and Hungarian flags were flown for Transleithania.[191]
Hungary
Hungary proper used a red-white-green tricolor defaced with the
Hungarian coat of arms, sometimes used to represent the entirety of
the Lands of the Hungarian Crown.
Flag of Imperial
Austria
Austria (Cisleithania) and of the House of Habsburg
Flag of Royal Hungary
Flag of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
Coat of arms[edit]
See also: Coat of arms of Austria-Hungary
The double-headed eagle of the
House of Habsburg
House of Habsburg was used as the coat
of arms of the common institutions of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary between 1867 and
1915. In 1915, a new one was introduced, which combined the coat of
arms of the two halves of the
Dual Monarchy
Dual Monarchy and that of the dynasty.
Common small coat of arms (until 1915)
Common small coat of arms (1915–1918)
Common medium coat of arms (until 1915)
Common medium coat of arms (1915–1918)
Additionally, each of the two parts of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary had its own
coat of arms.
Small coat of arms of the Austrian part (1915–1918)
Medium coat of arms of the Austrian part (1915–1918)
Small coat of arms of the Hungarian part (1915–1918)
Medium coat of arms of the Hungarian part (1915–1918)
See also[edit]
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary portal
Aftermath of World War I
Austrian nobility
Corporative federalism, a form of administration adopted by the
Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Diplomatic history of World War I
Czech lands: 1867–1918
Ethnic composition of Austria-Hungary
Former countries in Europe after 1815
Habsburg Monarchy
Hungarian nobility
United States
United States of Greater Austria
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
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Portal
Portal Betriebsges.m.b.H. "Austro-Hungarian
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^ Fisher, Gilman. The Essentials of Geography for School Year
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^ From the
Encyclopædia Britannica
Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), although note that this
"Romani" refers to the language of those described by the EB as
"Gypsies"; the EB's "Romani or Wallachian" refers to what is today
known as Romanian; Rosyn and Ukrainian correspond to dialects of what
the EB refers to as "Ruthenian"; and Yiddish was the common language
of the Austrian Jews, although Hebrew was also known by many.
^ Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde, 1911, Tabelle 3.
^ see Concessions_in_Tianjin#Austro-Hungarian_concession_(1901–1917)
^ a b c d e f g Headlam, James Wycliffe (1911).
"Austria-Hungary". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 3
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–39.
^ Schulze, Max-Stephan. Engineering and Economic Growth: The
Development of Austria-Hungary's Machine-Building Industry in the Late
Nineteenth Century, p. 295. Peter Lang (Frankfurt), 1996.
^ Publishers' Association, Booksellers Association of Great Britain
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^ Contributors: Austria. Österreichische konsularische
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^ Minahan, James. Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the
Newly Independent States, p. 48.
^ a b " Jayne, Kingsley Garland (1911). "Bosnia and Herzegovina".
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^ "The kingdom of
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Hungary full internal autonomy, together with a responsible
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^ Roman, Eric (2009). Austria-
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^ Szávai, Ferenc (2010). Osztrák–magyar külügyi ingatlanok
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^ Antun Radić, "Hrvatski pašuši (putnice)" Dom, 15 January 1903,
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^ "In 1804 Emperor Franz assumed the title of
Emperor of Austria
Emperor of Austria for
all the Erblande of the dynasty and for the other Lands, including
Hungary. Thus
Hungary
Hungary formally became part of the
Empire
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^ a b c d e One or more of the preceding
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p. 900.
^ Richard L. Rudolph: Banking and
Industrialization
Industrialization in
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Industrialization
Industrialization of the
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^ Cavallaro, Gaetano (2010). Disaster Ending in Final Victory: The
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^ Kann (1974); Sked (1989); Taylor (1964)
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^ a b c d Taylor 1964
^ Günther Kronenbitter: "Krieg im Frieden". Die Führung der k.u.k.
Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914.
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^ a b Sked 1989
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^ Gary B. Cohen (2006). The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in
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in Europe 1789-1939. Oxford University Press. p. 299.
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^ Rothenberg 1976, p. 128.
^ David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig: The World Reacts to the
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^ "
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Hungary – Social Changes". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 19
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^ F.R. Bridge, From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of
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Hungary
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^ Hans A. Schmitt, "Count Beust and Germany, 1866–1870: Reconquest,
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^ William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890
(2nd ed. 1950) p. 20
^ Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 pp. 138,
155–6, 163
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^ Peter F. Sugar, Péter Hanák: A History of
Hungary
Hungary (Publisher:
Indiana University Press) Page: 262
^ Good, David. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire
^ Max-Stephan Schulze (1996). Engineering and Economic Growth: The
Development of Austria-Hungary's Machine-Building Industry in the Late
Nineteenth Century. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 80.
^ Commercial Relations of the United States: Reports from the Consuls
of the
United States
United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, Etc., of Their
Consular Districts. Publisher: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1881
(page: 371)
^ Berend, Iván T. (2013). Case Studies on Modern European Economy:
Entrepreneurship, Inventions, and Institutions. Routledge.
p. 151.
^ Max-Stephan Schulze (1996). Engineering and Economic Growth: The
Development of Austria-Hungary's Machine-Building Industry in the Late
Nineteenth Century. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 295.
^ Erik Eckermann: World History of the Automobile – Page 325
^ Hans Seper: Die Brüder Gräf: Geschichte der Gräf &
Stift-Automobile
^ "Václav Laurin a Václav Klement" (in Czech). Archived from the
original on 1 June 2004.
^ Kurt Bauer (2003), Faszination des Fahrens: unterwegs mit Fahrrad,
Motorrad und Automobil (in German), Böhlau Verlag Wien, Kleine
Enzyklopädie des Fahrens, "Lohner", pp. 250–1
^ Iván Boldizsár: NHQ; the New Hungarian Quarterly – Volume 16,
Issue 2; Volume 16, Issues 59–60 – Page 128
^ Hungarian Technical Abstracts: Magyar Műszaki Lapszemle – Volumes
10–13 – Page 41
^ Joseph H. Wherry: Automobiles of the World: The Story of the
Development of the Automobile, with Many Rare Illustrations from a
Score of Nations (Page:443)
^ "The history of the biggest pre-War Hungarian car maker".
^ Commerce Reports Volume 4, page 223 (printed in 1927)
^ G.N. Georgano: The New Encyclopedia of Motorcars, 1885 to the
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^ "Edvard Rusjan, Pioneer of Slovene Aviation". Republic of Slovenia
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^ http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02185/html/812.html
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Hungary
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^ Mária Kovács: Short History Of Hungarian Aviation
^ Puskel Péter. "Az aradi autógyártás sikertörténetéből".
NyugatiJelen.com. Retrieved 2016-04-09.
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^ Iron Age, Volume 85, Issue 1. Chilton Company. 1910.
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History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. Cambridge
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^ Mikulas Teich, Roy Porter: The Industrial Revolution in National
Context: Europe and the USA (page: 266.)
^
Iván T. Berend (2003). History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe
in the Long Nineteenth Century (in Hungarian). University of
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Light Railways of
Switzerland
Switzerland and
Austria
Austria (2nd edition),
pp. 129–135 ISBN 0948106271.
^ Tramways in Czech Republic: Book: Jan Vinař : Historické
krovy (page 351)
^ Tramways in
Poland
Poland (including Galicia), Book: Arkadiusz Kołoś,
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki
Przestrzennej: Rozwój przestrzenny a współczesne funkcjonowanie
miejskiego transportu szynowego w Polsce (page: 19)
^ History of Public Transport in Hungary. Book: Zsuzsa Frisnyák: A
magyarországi közlekedés krónikája, 1750–2000
^ Tramways in Croatia: Book: Vlado Puljiz, Gojko Bežovan, Teo
Matković, dr. Zoran Šućur, Siniša Zrinščak: Socijalna politika
Hrvatske
^ "Trams and Tramways in
Romania
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beyondtheforest.com.
^ Tramways in Slovakia: Book: Július Bartl: Slovak History:
Chronology & Lexicon – p. 112
^ István
Tisza
Tisza and László Kovács: A magyar állami, magán- és
helyiérdekű vasúttársaságok fejlődése 1876–1900 között,
Magyar Vasúttörténet 2. kötet. Budapest: Közlekedési
Dokumentációs Kft., 58–59, 83–84. o. ISBN 9635523130
(1996)(English: The development of Hungarian private and state owned
commuter railway companies between 1876 – 1900, Hungarian railway
History Volume II.
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Publishing Ltd, 2003, page 174
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UNESCO
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "
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List". whc.unesco.org.
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^ Iván Wisnovszky, Study trip to the
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(1867–1918)[1]
^ Museum of Moslavina Kutina, Jasmina Uroda Kutlić: 'Telefon –
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^ "125 godina telefonije u Hrvatskoj (125 years of Telephony in
Croatia)" (in Croatian). Retrieved 11 March 2016.
^ HT Muzej (Croatian Telecom Museum): '125 godina telefonije u
Hrvatskoj' (125 years of Telephony in Croatia),
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^ See the above cited book: Stephen Broadberry and Kevin H. O'Rourke:
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Present, page: 80
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Első rész. A népesség főbb adatai (in Hungarian). Budapest:
Magyar Kir. Központi Statisztikai Hivatal (KSH). 1912.
^ Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde, 1911, Tabelle 3.
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^ 1910. évi népszámlálás adatai. (Magyar Statisztikai
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Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire article of E. Britannica 1911
^ a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates
text from a publication now in the public domain: Headlam, James
Wycliffe (1911b). "Austria-Hungary". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia
Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 3.
^ Headlam 1911b, p. 4.
^ Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the
Congress of
Vienna
Vienna (1973) CH 6
^ Wheatcroft, Andrew. The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and
the Battle for Europe, p. 264.
^ a b c d e f g "Britannica". Britannica. Retrieved 24 March
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^ WebCite query result
^ Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the
Congress of
Vienna
Vienna (1973) pp 201–14
^ "The Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909". Mount HolyOak.
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^ Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the
Congress of
Vienna
Vienna (1973) ch 8
^ Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the
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Vienna
Vienna (1973) pp 259–72
^ Jeffrey Finestone; Robert K. Massie (1981). The last courts of
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^ David James Smith (2010). One Morning In Sarajevo. Hachette UK. He
was photographed on the way to the station and the photograph has been
reproduced many times in books and articles, claiming to depict the
arrest of Gavrilo Princip. But there is no photograph of Gavro's
arrest – this photograph shows the arrest of Behr.
^ "European powers maintain focus despite killings in
Sarajevo — History.com This Day in History — 6/30/1914".
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^ Dimitrije Djordjević; Richard B. Spence (1992). Scholar, patriot,
mentor: historical essays in honor of Dimitrije Djordjević. East
European Monographs. p. 313. ISBN 9780880332170. Following
the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Catholic
Croats
Croats and
Muslims
Muslims in
Sarajevo
Sarajevo joined forces in an anti-Serb pogrom.
^ Reports Service: Southeast Europe series. American Universities
Field Staff. 1964. p. 44. Retrieved 7 December 2013. ... the
assassination was followed by officially encouraged anti-Serb riots in
Sarajevo ...
^ Daniela Gioseffi (1993). On Prejudice: A Global Perspective. Anchor
Books. p. 246. ISBN 9780385469388. Retrieved 2 September
2013. ... Andric describes the "
Sarajevo
Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that
erupted among Muslims, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers
following the assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand in Sarajevo ...
^ Andrej Mitrović (2007). Serbia's Great War, 1914–1918. Purdue
University Press. p. 19. ISBN 9781557534774. Retrieved 7
December 2013.
^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 485
The Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its
persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.
^ John R. Schindler (2007). Unholy Terror: Bosnia, Al-Qa'ida, and the
Rise of Global Jihad. Zenith Imprint. p. 29.
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^ Velikonja 2003, p. 141
^ Herbert Kröll (28 February 2008). Austrian-Greek encounters over
the centuries: history, diplomacy, politics, arts, economics.
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Serbs
Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an
auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression.
^ William Jannen: Lions of July: Prelude to War, 1914 – PAGE:456
^ David G. Herrmann: The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First
World War, p. 211, Princeton University Press, (1997)
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^ Fischer, Fritz: Germany’s Aims in the First World War, New York,
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^ "First World War.com – Who's Who – Count
Istvan Tisza
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^ Source: Ladislaus Count von Szögyény-Marich (Berlin) to Leopold
Count von Berchtold (July 5, 1914), in Ludwig Bittner, et. al., eds.,
Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der Bosnischen Krise 1908 bis
zum Kriegsausbruch 1914 [Austria-Hungary’s Foreign Policy prior to
the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 up to the Outbreak of War in 1914]. 8 vols,
Vienna, 1930, vol. 8, no. 10,058.
^ Primary Documents: Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia, 23 July 1914
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^ Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914
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^ A. F. Pribram, Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 (1923) pp
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^ Z.A.B. Zeman, A diplomatic history of the First World War (1971) pp
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^ Stevenson, The First World War and International Politics (1988) pp
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^ David Stevenson, "The failure of peace by negotiation in 1917."
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^ Edward P. Keleher, "Emperor Karl and the Sixtus Affair:
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Austro-German Camps, and the Disintegration of Habsburg Austria,
1916–1918." East European Quarterly 26.2 (1992): 163+.
^ Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-
Hungary
Hungary at War,
1914–1918 (2014). pp 536–40.
^ Max-Stephan Schulze, "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I," in
Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War
I (2005) ch 3 online[permanent dead link]
^ Robert A. Kann, et al. eds. The Habsburg
Empire
Empire in World War I:
Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects
of the Habsburg War Effort (1977)
^ Mowat, C.L. (1968). The new cambridge modern history. volume xii.
(CUP Archive)London: Cambridge University Press. p. 479.
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^ Andreas Kappeler (2014). The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History.
Routledge. p. 287. ISBN 9781317568100.
^ Sima M. Cirkovic (2008). The
Serbs
Serbs Volume 10 of The Peoples of
Europe. John Wiley & Sons. p. 235.
ISBN 9781405142915.
^ Marius Rotar (2013). History of Modern Cremation in Romania.
Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 24.
ISBN 9781443845427.
^ Stephen Broadberry; Kevin H. O'Rourke (2010). The Cambridge Economic
History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. Cambridge
University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9781139489515.
^ David Stevenson (2011). With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and
Defeat in 1918. Harvard University Press. p. 399.
ISBN 9780674063198.
^ Maureen Healy,
Vienna
Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War
and Everyday Life in
World War I
World War I (2007)
^ Schulze, "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I,"
^ Ivo Banac, "'Emperor Karl Has Become a Comitadji': The Croatian
Disturbances of Autumn 1918." Slavonic and East European Review 70#2
(1992): 284–305.
^ Spencer Tucker (1996). "The European Powers in the First World War".
p. 173.
^ Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in
World War I
World War I (2014), excerpt
^ "French forces occupy Corfu — History.com This Day in
History — 1/11/1916". History.com. Retrieved 11 September
2011.
^ John R. Schindler, Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War
(2001)
^ Gaetano V. Cavallaro (2010). The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic,
Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in
the First World War 1914–1917 I. p. 339.
ISBN 9781401084264.
^ Pier Paolo Cervone, Vittorio Veneto, l'ultima battaglia, Milano,
Mursia, 1993.
^ Indro Montanelli; Mario Cervi, Due secoli di guerre, VII, Novara,
Editoriale Nuova, 1981.
^ Glenn E. Torrey,
Romania
Romania and
World War I
World War I (Histria Books, 1998)
^ Watson, Ring of Steel p 396-97
^ See: 1910 census
^ Buranbaeva, Oksana; Mladineo, Vanja (2011). Culture and Customs of
Hungary, Cultures and Customs of the World. Bonn, Germany: ABC-CLIO.
p. 32. ISBN 9780313383700.
^ Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in
World War I
World War I (2014), p 536
^ Watson, Ring of Steel pp 536–40
^ Watson, Ring of Steel pp 541–2
^ "Hungarian foreign ministers from 1848 to our days". Mfa.gov.hu.
Archived from the original on 21 June 2006. Retrieved 28 August
2016.
^ Watson, Ring of Steel pp 542–56
^ "Die amtliche Meldung über den Rücktritt" (in German). Neue Freie
Presse, Morgenblatt. 1919-08-24. p. 2.
^ "Trianon, Treaty of". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2012. Archived from
the original on 28 December 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
^ Tucker, Spencer; Priscilla Mary Roberts (2005). Encyclopedia of
World War I
World War I (1 ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 1183. ISBN 9781851094202.
Virtually the entire population of what remained of
Hungary
Hungary regarded
the
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision
began immediately.
^ For more information about the Austro-Hungarian concession, see:
Concessions in Tianjin#Austro-Hungarian concession (1901–1917).
^ Croatian-Hungarian Settlement
62. The emblem of the Joint Affairs of the territories of the
Hungarian Crown is formed by the combined arms of
Hungary
Hungary and of
Croatia,
Slavonia
Slavonia and Dalmatia.
^ Croatian-Hungarian Settlement
63. At times when Joint Affairs are being debated, the combined
Croatian-Slavonia-Dalmatian flag is to be hoisted beside the Hungarian
flag, upon the building in which the Joint
Parliament
Parliament of the
territories of the Hungarian Crown is being held.
^ Austria. Reichsrat. Abgeordnetenhaus (1903). Stenographische
protokolle über die sitzungen ...: 1. (eröffnungs-) bis [485.]
sitzung ... Aus der K.-k. Hof -und staatsdruckerei.
p. 20714. :
Der § 63 spricht auch von einer kroatisch-slavonisch-dalmatinischen
vereinigten Fahne auf Reichstagsgebäude. Diese Fahne war bis anno
domini 1902 allen Dimensionen nach gleich ungarische Fahne.
^ a b Pliverić, Josip (1907). Spomenica o državnopravnih pitanjih
hrvatsko-ugarskih. Zagreb: Hartman (Stjepan Kugli). , p. 50
Further reading[edit]
Surveys[edit]
Cornwall, Mark, ed. The Last Years of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary University of
Exeter Press, 2002. ISBN 0-85989-563-7
Encyclopædia Britannica
Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition
plus three new volumes 30–31–32 that cover events since 1911 with
very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony.
partly online
Full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free; the article
"Austrian Empire" is vol 30 pp 313–343
Evans, R.J.W. Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Central Europe
c.1683–1867 (2008) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.001.0001
online
Herman, Arthur. What Life Was Like: At Empire's End :
Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Empire 1848–1918 (Time Life, 2000); heavily
illustrated
Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016) excerpt
Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 (U of
California Press, 1974); highly detailed history; emphasis on
ethnicity
Macartney, Carlile Aylmer The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918, New York,
Macmillan 1969.
Oakes, Elizabeth and Eric Roman. Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and the Successor
States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present (2003)
Palmer, Alan. Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor
Francis Joseph. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995.
ISBN 0871136651
Redlich, Joseph. Emperor Francis Joseph Of Austria. New York:
Macmillan, 1929. online free
Sked Alan The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918,
London: Longman, 1989.
Steed, Henry Wickham; et al. (1914). A short history of
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and Poland.
Sugar, Peter F. et al. eds. A History of
Hungary
Hungary (1990), coverage by
experts
Taylor, A.J.P. The Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the
Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, (London: Penguin Books. 2nd ed.
1964); politics and diplomacy
World war[edit]
Boyer, John W. "Silent war and bitter peace: the revolution of 1918 in
Austria." Austrian History Yearbook 34 (2003): 1–56.
Cornwall, Mark. "News, Rumour and the Control of Information in
Austria‐Hungary, 1914–1918." History 77#249 (1992): 50–64.
Cornwall, Mark. The undermining of Austria-Hungary: the battle for
hearts and minds (London: Macmillan, 2000)
Craig, Gordon A. "The
World War I
World War I alliance of the
Central Powers
Central Powers in
retrospect: the military cohesion of the alliance." Journal of Modern
History (1965): 336–344. in JSTOR
Healy, Maureen.
Vienna
Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War
and Everyday Life in
World War I
World War I (2007)
Herweg, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary
1914–1918 (2009)
Jászi, Oszkár The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy, (University
of Chicago Press, 1966)
Kann, Robert A. et al., eds. The Habsburg
Empire
Empire in World War I:
Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects
of the Habsburg War Effort (1977) online borrowing copy
Kapp, Richard W. "Divided Loyalties: The German Reich and
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in Austro-German Discussions of War Aims,
1914–1916." Central European History 17#2–3 (1984): 120–139.
Schulze, Max-Stephan. "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I," in
Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War
I (2005) ch 3 online[permanent dead link]
Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-
Hungary
Hungary in World
War I (2014)
Wawro, Geoffrey. A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of
World War I
World War I and
the Collapse of the Habsburg
Empire
Empire (2014)
Williamson, Samuel R. Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and the Origins of the First
World War (1991)
Specialty topics[edit]
Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. Origins of the Czech National Renascence
(University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993)
Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army,
1619–1918 (2016).
Boyer, John W. Culture and political crisis in Vienna: Christian
socialism in power, 1897–1918 (1995)
Bridge, F.R. From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary 1866–1914 (1972; reprint 2016) online review;
excerpt
Good, David. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire: 1750–1914
(1984)
Kieval, Hillel. The Making of Czech Jewry: National Conflict and
Jewish
Jewish Society in Bohemia, 1870–1918 (Oxford University Press, 1988)
King, Jeremy. Budweisers into
Czechs
Czechs and Germans: A Local History of
Bohemian Politics, 1848–1948 (Princeton University Press, 2002)
Langer, William L. (1956). European Alliances and Alignments (2nd
ed.). detailed coverage of major diplomatic moves
McCagg, Jr., William O. A History of the Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918
(Indiana University Press, 1989)
Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of
Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977) pp 271–331
Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of
Continental Europe 1780–1870 (2nd ed. 1979), 552pp
Phelps, Nicole M. U.S.-Habsburg Relations from 1815 to the Paris Peace
Conference (2013) online review
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1976), The Army of Francis Joseph, Purdue
University Press
Rothenberg, E. Gunther. "Nobility and Military Careers: The Habsburg
Officer Corps, 1740–1914," Military Affairs (1976) 40#4
pp. 182–186 in JSTOR
Rothenberg, E. Gunther. "The Austrian Army in the Age of Metternich,"
Journal of Modern History (1968) 40#2 pp. 155–165 in JSTOR
Rothenberg, E. Gunther. "Toward a National Hungarian Army: The
Military Compromise of 1868 and Its Consequences," Slavic Review,
(1972) 31#4 pp. 805–816 in JSTOR
Stauter-Halsted, Keely. The
Nation in the Village: The Genesis of
Peasant National Identity in Austrian Poland, 1848–1914 (Cornell
University Press, 2001)
Sugar, Peter F. (1994). A History of Hungary. et al. (2nd ed.).
Indiana University Press.
Primary sources[edit]
Baedeker, Karl. Austria-Hungary: Including
Dalmatia
Dalmatia and Bosnia;
Handbook for Travellers (1905) online
Gooch, G. P. Recent Revelations Of European
Diplomacy
Diplomacy (1940), pp
103–59 summarizes memoirs of major participants
Historiography and memory[edit]
Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers
(Rutledge, 1999) 1:60–63, historiography
Kozuchowski, Adam. The Afterlife of Austria-Hungary: The Image of the
Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy in Interwar Europe (University of Pittsburgh Press;
2013) 208 pages; Translation of a Polish study of cultural memories of
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary as seen in histories, journalism, and literature.
Kwan, Jonathan. "Review Article: Nationalism and all that: Reassessing
the
Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy and its legacy." European History Quarterly 41#1
(2011): 88–108.
In German[edit]
Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde an der österreichischen
Mittelschulen. (ed.: Rudolf Rothaug), K. u. k. Hof-Kartographische
Anstalt G. Freytag & Berndt, Vienna, 1911.
External links[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Austria-Hungary.
Articles relating to Austria-
Hungary
Hungary at the International Encyclopedia
of the First World War.
Habsburg
Empire
Empire Austrian line
Microsoft Encarta: The height of the dual monarchy (Archived 31
October 2009)
The Austro-Hungarian Military
Heraldry of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Austria-
Hungary
Hungary at the
Wayback Machine
Wayback Machine (archived 12 January 2008) –
extensive list of heads of state, ministers, and ambassadors
History of Austro-Hungarian currency
Austria-Hungary, Dual Monarchy
The
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army in the Italian Dolomites (in Italian)
Map of Europe and the collapse of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary at omniatlas.com
Mangham, Arthur Neal. The Social Bases of Austrian Politics: The
German Electoral Districts of Cisleithania, 1900–1914. Ph.D. thesis
1974
Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848–1918
HABSBURG is a email discussion list dealing with the culture and
history of the
Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy and its successor states in central
Europe since 1500, with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries,
conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994
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Outline
Index
Category
Portal
Coordinates: 48°12′N 16°21′E / 48.200°N 16.350°E /
48.200; 16.350
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
LCCN: n50057161
GND: 4075613-0
SUDOC: 02635991X
BNF: