The architecture of Myanmar (formerly known as Burma), in Southeast Asia, includes architectural styles which reflect the influence of neighboring and Western nations and Modernization theory, modernization. The country's most prominent buildings include Buddhist Burmese pagoda, pagodas, stupas and Kyaung, temples, British Empire, British colonial buildings, and modern renovations and structures. Myanmar's traditional architecture is primarily used for Buddhist devotion, worship, Buddhist pilgrimage sites, pilgrimage, storage of Relics associated with Buddha, Buddhist relics, Activism, political activism and Tourism in Myanmar, tourism.

History and influences

Early Indian influence

Much of Myanmar's architecture is tied to ancient Architecture of India, Indian culture, and can be traced to the country's earliest known inhabitants. During the Pyu city-states, Pyu period, cylindrical stupas with four Torana, archways—often with a ''hti'' (umbrella) on top—were built. The Mon people, Mon and Pyu people were the first two influential groups to migrated to Myanmar, and the first Indochina, Indo-Chinese adherents of Theravada, Theravada Buddhism. Beikthano, one of the first Pyu centers, contains urbanesque foundations which include a monastery and stupa-like structures. These Pyu stupas, the first Indian foundations in Myanmar, were built from 200 BC to 100 CE and were sometimes used for burial. Early stupas, temples and pagodas are topped with ''htis'' and finials or spires symbolizing Theravada Buddhist transcendence.

Bagan period

By the 9th century, the Bamar people had established a kingdom centered at Bagan. During the 11th century, King Anawrahta unified the Irrawaddy River, Irrawaddy Valley region and founded the Pagan Kingdom, Pagan Empire. Bagan, with over 10,000 of Myanmar's red brick stupas and pagodas, had become a center of Buddhist architecture by the mid-12th century. During this period, the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into monuments reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped domes, unbaked brick, tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches, polylobed arches and ornamental doorways influenced by India's Pala Empire and its monuments. Stucco was widely used in Bagan, especially by the Mon people. Stucco features of Bagan structures include garlands, flames or rays of the sun, peacock tail feathers and mythical creatures. The Dhammayazika Pagoda has a plan similar to the Tantric Paharpur, India, Paharpur stupa in India. It does not have a square base like many Bagan stupas; instead, it has a pentagonal base with radial halls and low Molding (decorative), skirting. The Ananda Temple (finished in 1090), one of the first temples erected in Bagan, was influenced by Architecture of India, Indian architecture. The Vault (architecture), vaulted temple represents the Theravada branch of Buddhism, Bagan's official religion when it was built. Architectural features of the temple include brick vaulted halls, Buddha statues, tapered roofs and the absence of Terrace (building), terraces. The temple has one of the first uses of the pyatthat, or tiered roof, which indicates the presence of a throne within. With both royal and religious symbolism, many of the temple's images depict the Buddha seated before an odd number of pyatthat tiers. Many of Bagan's historical monuments are well-preserved, due to the dry climate. Bagan, with one of the largest concentrations of temples in the world, is one of Myanmar's most important pilgrimage sites. Many of the temples' paintings and murals are still visible. Notable architectural sites in Bagan include the Bupaya Pagoda, the Dhammayangyi Temple, Dhammayangyi, Gawdawpalin Temple, Gawdawpalin and Htilominlo Temples, the Inn-hpaya Stupa, the Mahabodhi Temple, Bagan, Mahabodhi Temple, the Mingalazedi Pagoda, the Minochantha stupa group, the Taung Kyaung monastery, the Nathlaung Kyaung Temple, the Nga-kywe-na-daung Stupa, the Pahto Thamya and Shwegugyi Temples, the Shwezigon Pagoda and the Sulamani Temple, Sulamani and Thatbyinnyu Temple. File:Gawdawpalin Temple Bagan Myanmar.jpg, alt=Ornate temple, lit by the sun, The Gawdawpalin Temple in Bagan was built during the 12th century File:Bagan 131.jpg, alt=Large, ornate temple surrounded by trees, The Thatbyinnyu Temple in Bagan was built by King Alaungsithu in the mid-12th century. File:Dhamma Yan Gyi, Pagan 0181.jpg, alt=Another large temple lit by the sun, with a bus for scale, The Dhammayangyi Temple, Bagan's largest File:Htilominlo-Bagan-Myanmar-12-gje.jpg, alt=Decorated corner, Htilominlo Temple's stucco ornamentation File:Le dernier repas avant l'Éveil.JPG, alt=Frescoes of the Buddha and other people, Frescoes in the Gubyaukgyi Temple (Myinkaba) File:20160810 Bawbawgyi Pogoda Sri Ksetra Pyay Myanmar 9260.jpg, alt=Large bell-shaped reliquary, The Bawbawgyi Pagoda is a Pyu-style stupa in Sri Ksetra Kingdom, Sri Ksetra

Colonial era

Burma was part of the British Empire by the end of the 1880s, and this ushered in a period of colonial architecture. Rangoon, now known as Yangon, became a multi-ethnic capital. As large, colonial buildings were built throughout the city, social disruption in Burma spawned nationalist rallies and anti-colonial protests. Yangon's Downtown Yangon, central business district, along the Yangon River, contains many colonial-era buildings. One example is the Ministers' Building, built as the Secretariat Building in 1902 to house the British administration. Other downtown structures are the Bogyoke Market (formerly Scott Market) and the Strand Hotel, built in 1896 by Aviet and Tigran Sarkie. Prominent buildings include Yangon City Hall, built between 1926 and 1936; the Customs House; the High Court Building (Yangon), High Court Building (built in 1914 and converted to the High Court head office in 1962); the 1920 Inland Water Transport Authority Building, and the former Myanmar Railways headquarters.

Notable structures

Shwedagon Pagoda

The Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon is a stupa and a focal point of Buddhism in Myanmar. At high, the stupa is covered with gold leaf and Gilding, plate. It is surrounded by smaller shrines, and is topped with a gem-encrusted ''seinbu'' (diamond bud) and a seven-tiered ''hti'' representing Burmese spirituality. Every four or five years, its gold is repaired or replaced. The stupa, built by a Theravada Buddhist society, is said to contain strands of the Buddha's hair. Built to be walked around, visitors pass astrological representations of the eight days of a Burmese week. The platform includes devotional centres at the cardinal direction, cardinal compass points and dozens of smaller stupas, including the Golden Elder. Bodhi Tree, Bodhi trees, images of the Buddha and other spiritual figures, and the 16-ton Singu Min Bell (formerly known as the Maha Ganda Bell) decorate the exterior. The pagoda has been a centre of Buddhist devotion and a forum for political activism. During the anti-colonial demonstrations of the nationalist Thakins, Thakin Party in 1938 and 1939, "strike centres" were set up around the pagoda. In 1988, as the Burmese Socialist Programme Party was 8888 Uprising, collapsing, Shwedagon was a platform for pro-democracy political demonstrations. On 26 August 1988, Aung San Suu Kyi spoke before a large audience about democracy at the pagoda's west gate.

Mandalay Palace

The Mandalay Palace is an example of wooden architecture in Myanmar, which emphasizes exterior aesthetics rather than interior space. Built in the late 1850s, some characteristics of the palace (such as cardinally-placed gates and a central palace structure) can be traced back to the early Pyu period. The primary east–west axis was constructed from the palace buildings themselves. Illustrations from 11th century Pagan depict wooden buildings similar to those at the palace, and handiwork later found at Mandalay. Only a section of the original palace remained after a 1945 fire, with examples of traditional stucco used in Burmese construction. The palace's Flower Distribution Centre contains several wooden, semicircular arches which may have been inspired by 19th-century European buildings. The stucco on these arches appears to represent rays of sunlight or Nelumbo nucifera, lotus petals. In addition to its wood carvings and stucco, tiered roofs (''pyatthat'') are a feature of the palace. Inside, covered hallways lead to a small throne room which is topped by a ''pyatthat''. Many ''pyatthats'' on the palace, like those other Burmese structures, are parallel to monasteries and throne rooms. There is also a ''pyatthat'' over the Great Audience Hall. Due to the tropical climate, frequent renovations of the wood-and=stucco palace have been necessary; some of its original teak has been reinforced with concrete.

Features

Stucco and wood carving

Stucco, introduced during the Bagan period, is strongly tied to Mon people, Mon heritage. Wood carving in Myanmar is a traditional art which has survived for centuries. Due to its tropical climate (necessitating the reconstruction of many buildings), the craft has been passed down from generation to generation. Without these renovations, the art of wood carving would have been lost and it would have been impossible to reconstruct traditional features.

Use of gold

Gold cladding is a feature of traditional Burmese architecture, usually prominent in Gilding, gilded or gold-plated exteriors. The Bupaya Pagoda, Bupaya, Shwedagon Pagoda, Shwedagon, Shwezigon Pagoda, Shwezigon and Lawkananda Pagodas have gold features.

Threats

During World War II, many historical structures were lost or damaged; much of the Mandalay Palace was destroyed in a fire near the end of the war. In 1962, on alleged orders from Ne Win, the University of Yangon, Rangoon University Students' Union was 1962 Rangoon University protests, demolished (although the main campus still contains lecture and residence halls from the colonial period). Since the late 1980s, many colonial structures (including a block of cinemas) have been razed for new construction.

Preservation and reconstruction

Only a few colonial-era buildings and about 2,200 temples and pagodas remain in Myanmar. As a result of these losses, many groups have united to preserve the remaining structures. The Yangon City Development Committee, established in 1990, has worked with the State Peace and Development Council to recondition many Buddhist monuments with plans for newer and more-challenging designs. Pagodas and temples have been renovated to promote "monumental Buddhism", the renewal of Buddhist architecture for a sense of authenticity. These newer Buddhist sites, a combination of modern and traditional Burmese style, are found throughout Myanmar and include Kyaung, monasteries, Burmese pagoda, pagodas and the International Theravada Buddhist Missionary University. The crown umbrella atop the Shwedagon Pagoda, which was donated by Mindon Min, King Mindon in 1871, was replaced in the spring of 1999. The Yangon Heritage Trust, formed in 2012, is a non-governmental organization committed to preserving Yangon's historic architecture. The trust has had several preservation successes, due to its public-awareness campaigns. Agreements with government officials have saved the former Indian and U.S. Embassy buildings and Gandhi Hall, Yangon, Gandhi Hall.

References

Notes

Bibliography

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