''Apistogramma'' is a large

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

freshwater fish Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels o ...

in the

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

Cichlidae Cichlids are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Cichliformes. Cichlids were traditionally classed in a suborder, the Labroidei, along with the wrasses ( Labridae), in the order Perciformes, but molecular studies have contradicted this ...

found in

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sou ...

, but also commonly kept in aquariums. They are

dwarf cichlid Dwarf cichlid is a term used by fishkeeping hobbyists to describe an arbitrary assemblage of small-sized fish from the family Cichlidae. Although the grouping is widely used in the aquarium industry and hobby, the grouping has no taxonomic ...

s that mostly feed on tiny animals and have breeding behaviors that vary depending on the exact species.

Range, conservation status and habitat

''Apistogramma'' are exclusively found in tropical and subtropical South America in the lowlands east of the

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

. The highest richness is in the western

Amazon Basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Boli ...

and Orinoco Basin, but there are also species in the Guianan Shield, eastern Amazon Basin, rivers flowing into the Atlantic in northern Brazil (

Tocantins Tocantins () is one of the 26 states of Brazil. It is the newest state, formed in 1988 and encompassing what had formerly been the northern two-fifths of the state of Goiás. Tocantins covers and had an estimated population of 1,496,880 in 20 ...

– Araguaia to

Parnaíba Parnaíba () is a city in the Brazilian state of Piauí. Having a population of over 150,000 inhabitants according to IBGE's 2020 report, it is the second most populous city in the state, after the capital Teresina. It is one of the four coasta ...

) and the

Río de la Plata Basin The Río de la Plata basin ( es, Cuenca del Plata, pt, Bacia do Prata), more often called the River Plate basin in scholarly writings, sometimes called the Platine basin or Platine region, is the hydrographical area in South America that drain ...

.Kullander, S.O., and E.J.G. Ferreira (2005). Two new species of Apistogramma Regan (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the rio Trombetas, Pará State, Brazil. Neotrop. ichthyol. 3(3). Although a few species are widespread, most members of this genus have small ranges.Tougard, C., C.R.G. Dávila, U. Römer, F. Duponchelle, F. Cerqueira, E. Paradis, B. Guinand, C.A. Chávez, V. Salas, S. Quérouil, S. Sirvas, and J.-F. Renno (2017). Tempo and rates of diversification in the South American cichlid genus Apistogramma (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae). PLoS ONE 12(9): e0182618. Few members of the genus have been evaluated by the

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...

, mostly either ranking as

least concern A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. ...

(not threatened) or

data deficient A data deficient (DD) species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as offering insufficient information for a proper assessment of conservation status to be made. This does not necessaril ...

(limited available data prevents an evaluation), but some of the highly localized ''Apistogramma'' species likely are

threatened Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of '' critical depe ...

.Römer, U., Duponchelle, F., Vela Diaz, A., Garcia Davilla, C., Sirvas, S., Diaz Catchay, C. & Renno, J.-F. (2011)
''Apistogramma cinilabra'' sp. n.: Description of a potentially endangered endemic cichlid species (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae) from the Departamento Loreto, Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 61 (1): 3-23.''Römer, U., Soares, D.P., García Dávila, C.R., Duponchelle, F., Renno, J.-F. & Hahn, I. (2015)
Re-description of ''Apistogramma payaminonis'' Kullander, 1986, with descriptions of two new cichlid species of the genus ''Apistogramma'' (Teleostei, Perciformes, Geophaginae) from northern Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 65 (3): 305–332.'' Primary threats to their survival are

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...

(causing changes in their

microhabitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

) and pollution (for example by oil drilling or mining). ''Apistogramma'' generally inhabit streams, or edges of rivers or lakes. Most prefer sheltered habitats with leaf litter on the bottom in water with little movement and a shallow depth, up to about , although a few species occur deeper, in fast-flowing water, in more open habitats or at the surface among floating plants.Staeck, W., and I. Schindler (2019). Apistogramma psammophila – a new geophagine dwarf cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the Rio Atabapo drainage in Colombia and Venezuela. Vertebrate Zoology 69(1): 103-110.

Appearance

''Apistogramma'' are

s with adults reaching between in standard length depending on exact species. Most species are strongly

sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...

, with males generally larger than females and possessing different color patterns than the females (which at least when breeding are most frequently yellow with blackish markings); in a few species this pattern is reversed or the sexes are rather similar.Rodrigues, R.R., J. Zuanon, K. Del-Claro, and L.N. Carvalho (2012). Reproductive behavior of the Amazonian dwarf cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae Kullander, 1982: offsetting costs and benefits. Acta Ethologica 15(1): 1-7. . Additionally, they often change color depending on behavior, for example when looking for food, breeding or during aggressive encounters.Rodrigues, R.R., L.N. Carvalho, J. Zuanon, and K. Del-Claro (2009). Color changing and behavioral context in the Amazonian Dwarf Cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae (Perciformes). Neotrop. ichthyol. 7(4). A few species, including '' A. agassizii'', '' A. cacatuoides'', '' A hongsloi'' and '' A. macmasteri'', have been

selectively bred Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant ma ...

by aquarists to achieve brighter colors than the natural, wild forms.

Behavior

''Apistogramma'' are

omnivore An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nu ...

s, but tending towards micropredatory. Their main food items consist of aquatic insect

larvae A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. T ...

and other small

invertebrate Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chorda ...

s, fish fry,

algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular micr ...

and plant debris. Brood care is highly developed, as in most cichlids. Nearly all ''Apistogramma'' species

spawn Spawn or spawning may refer to: * Spawn (biology), the eggs and sperm of aquatic animals Arts, entertainment, and media * Spawn (character), a fictional character in the comic series of the same name and in the associated franchise ** '' Spawn: A ...

in crevices (small caves), typically in holes in sunken logs or branches, or in leaf litter aggregations. A number of breeding strategies exist in the genus. Some species breed in

polygamous Crimes Polygamy (from Late Greek (') "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is marri ...

harems, while other species form

monogamous Monogamy ( ) is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner during their lifetime. Alternately, only one partner at any one time ( serial monogamy) — as compared to the various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., pol ...

pairs. Three of the described species, '' A. barlowi'', '' A. megastoma'' and '' A. pantalone'', practice

mouthbrooding Mouthbrooding, also known as oral incubation and buccal incubation, is the care given by some groups of animals to their offspring by holding them in the mouth of the parent for extended periods of time. Although mouthbrooding is performed by a va ...

, either by both parents or only by the female. In most cases, regardless of the breeding strategy, the female is more highly involved with care of the eggs and fry, whilst the male defends a territory from predators. The sex of the fry is affected by the water conditions: In all species where it has been studied warmer water results in more males and in some species more acidic water (lower pH) also results in more males.Römer, U., and W. Beisenherz (1996). Environmental determination of sex in Apistogramma (Cichlidae) and two other freshwater fishes (Teleostei). Journal of Fish Biology 48(4): 714-725. Ospina-Álvarez, N., and F. Piferrer (2008). Temperature-dependent sex determination in fish revisited: Prevalence, a single sex ratio response pattern, and possible effects of climate change. PLoS One 3(7): e2837.

Taxonomy and species

Apistogramma allpahuayo Schwarzkinn-Zwergbuntbarsch

''Apistogramma'' is part of

Geophagini Geophagini is a tribe of cichlids from the subfamily Cichlinae, the American cichlids. It is the sister taxon to the clade which includes the Cichlasomatini and Heroini. Fishes in the Geophagini are distributed from Panama south to Argentina, i ...

and its closest relatives are '' Apistogrammoides'' and '' Taeniacara''.López-Fernández, H., R.L. Honeycutt, M.L.J. Stiassny, and K.O. Winemiller (2005). Morphology, molecules, and character congruence in the phylogeny of South American geophagine cichlids (Perciformes, Labroidei). Zoologica Scripta 34(6): 627–651. There are currently 93 recognized ''Apistogramma'' species, making it the most species-rich genus of cichlid in the Americas, together with '' Crenicichla''. New species of ''Apistogramma'' are regularly described, and

undescribed species In taxonomy, an undescribed taxon is a taxon (for example, a species) that has been discovered, but not yet formally described and named. The various Nomenclature Codes specify the requirements for a new taxon to be validly described and named. U ...

—sometimes

cryptic Cryptic may refer to: In science: * Cryptic species complex, a group of species that are very difficult to distinguish from one another * Crypsis, the ability of animals to blend in to avoid observation * Cryptic era, earliest period of the Earth ...

—are known to exist in the genus.Carvalho, A.P.C., R.A. Collins, J.G. Martínez, I.P. Farias, and T. Hrbek (2019). From shallow to deep divergences: mixed messages from Amazon Basin cichlids. Hydrobiologia 832(1): 317–329. Several of the recognized species occur in more than one form, and some of these actually may represent separate species, as appears to be the case for the "Papagayo" and "Pebás" forms, both typically included in ''A. ortegai''. A comprehensive taxonomic review of the genus is necessary. The genus is sometimes divided into subgroups based on the appearance and

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups ...

relationship of the various species. * '' Apistogramma acrensis'' Staeck, 2003 * '' Apistogramma agassizii'' (

Steindachner Franz Steindachner (11 November 1834 in Vienna – 10 December 1919 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist. He published over 200 papers on fishes and over 50 papers on reptiles and amphibians. Steindachner describ ...

, 1875) * '' Apistogramma aguarico''

Römer The Römer (German surname, "Roman") is a medieval building in the Altstadt of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and one of the city's most important landmarks. The Römer is located opposite the Old St. Nicholas church and has been the city hall (' ...

& Hahn, 2013Römer, U. & Hahn, I. (2013)
''Apistogramma aguarico'' sp. n.: A new species of geophagine cichlid fish (Teleostei: Perciformes) from the Ecuadorian and Peruvian río Napo system.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 63 (2): 171-181.'' * '' Apistogramma alacrina'' S. O. Kullander, 2004 * '' Apistogramma allpahuayo''

, Beninde, Duponchelle, Vela Díaz, Ortega, Hahn, Soares, Díaz Cachay, García-Dávila, Sirvas-Cornejo & Renno, 2012Römer, U., Beninde, J., Duponchelle, F., Vela Díaz, A., Ortega, H., Hahn, I., Soares, D.P., Díaz Cachay, C., García Dávila, C.R., Sirvas Cornejo, S. & Renno, J.-F. (2012)
Description of ''Apistogramma allpahuayo'' sp. n., a new dwarf cichlid species (Teleostei: Perciformes: Geophaginae) from in and around the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo Mishana, Loreto, Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 62 (2): 189–212.'' * '' Apistogramma amoena'' ( Cope, 1872) * '' Apistogramma angayuara'' S. O. Kullander & E. F. G. Ferreira, 2005 * '' Apistogramma arua''

& Warzel, 1998 * '' Apistogramma atahualpa''

, 1997 * '' Apistogramma baenschi''

, Hahn,

, Soares & Wöhler, 2004 * '' Apistogramma barlowi''

& Hahn, 2008 * '' Apistogramma bitaeniata'' Pellegrin, 1936 * '' Apistogramma borellii'' (

Regan The family name Regan, along with its cognates O'Regan, O Regan, Reagan, and O'Reagan, is an Anglicized form of the Irish surname Ó Riagáin or Ó Ríogáin, from Ua Riagáin. The meaning is likely to have originated in ancient Gaelic ''ri'' ...

, 1906) * '' Apistogramma brevis'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma cacatuoides'' Hoedeman, 1951 * '' Apistogramma caetei'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma caudomaculata'' Mesa_Salazar & Lasso, 2011 * '' Apistogramma cinilabra''

, Duponchelle, Vela Díaz, García-Dávila, Sirvas-Cornejo, Díaz Cachay & Renno, 2011 * '' Apistogramma commbrae'' (

, 1906) * '' Apistogramma cruzi'' S. O. Kullander, 1986 * '' Apistogramma diplotaenia'' S. O. Kullander, 1987 * '' Apistogramma eleutheria'' Varella & Britzke, 2016Varella, H.R. & Britzke, R. (2016)
''Apistogramma eleutheria'' and ''A. flavipedunculata'', two new species of dwarf cichlids from the rio Curuá on Serra do Cachimbo, Brazil (Teleostei: Cichlidae).
''Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 27 (1): 81-95.'' * '' Apistogramma elizabethae'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma eremnopyge''

Ready Ready may refer to: Film and television * ''Ready'', a 2002 British short starring Imelda Staunton * ''Ready'' (2008 film), a Telugu film * ''Ready'' (2011 film), a Hindi remake of the Telugu film * "Ready" (''New Girl''), a television episo ...

& S. O. Kullander, 2004 * '' Apistogramma erythrura'' Staeck & I. Schindler, 2008 * '' Apistogramma eunotus'' S. O. Kullander, 1981 * '' Apistogramma feconat''

, Soares, García-Dávila, Duponchelle, Renno & Hahn, 2015 * '' Apistogramma flabellicauda'' Mesa-Salazar & Lasso, 2011 * '' Apistogramma flavipedunculata'' Varella & Britzke, 2016 * '' Apistogramma geisleri'' Meinken, 1971 * '' Apistogramma gephyra'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma gibbiceps'' Meinken, 1969 * '' Apistogramma gossei'' S. O. Kullander, 1982 * '' Apistogramma guttata'' Antonio C., S. O. Kullander & Lasso A., 1989 * '' Apistogramma helkeri'' Schindler & Staeck, 2013Schindler, I. & Staeck, W. (2013)
Description of ''Apistogramma helkeri'' sp. n., a new geophagine dwarf cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the lower río Cuao (Orinoco drainage) in Venezuela.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 63 (3): 301-306.'' * '' Apistogramma hippolytae'' S. O. Kullander, 1982 * '' Apistogramma hoignei'' Meinken, 1965 * '' Apistogramma hongsloi'' S. O. Kullander, 1979 * '' Apistogramma huascar''

Pretor Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected ''magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vario ...