An anxiogenic or panicogenic substance is one that causes

anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...

. This effect is in contrast to

anxiolytic An anxiolytic (; also antipanic or antianxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiet ...

agents, which inhibits anxiety. Together these categories of psychoactive compounds may be referred to as

anxiotropic An anxiotropic () agent is one that modifies anxiety, a human emotion that has homologous processes in animals. In psychopharmacology anxiotropic agents consist of two categories of psychoactive drugs: anxiolytics that reduce anxiety and may be use ...

compounds. Anxiogenic effects can be measured by, for example, the

hole-board test The hole-board test (HBT) is an experimental method used in scientific research to measure anxiety, stress, neophilia and emotionality in animals. Because of its ability to measure multiple behaviors it is a popular test in behavioral pharmacology, ...

in rats and mice. A number of agents are used to provoke anxiety (anxiogens) or panic (panicogens) in experimental models. Some of the most common substances are:

carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is trans ...

(as carbogen),

sodium lactate Sodium lactate is the sodium salt of lactic acid, and has a mild saline taste. It is produced by fermentation of a sugar source, such as corn or beets, and then, by neutralizing the resulting lactic acid to create a compound having the formula Na ...

cocaine Cocaine (from , from , ultimately from Quechua: ''kúka'') is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant mainly used recreationally for its euphoric effects. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South Ameri ...

, substituted amphetamines,

caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is mainly used recreationally as a cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine to ...

L-DOPA -DOPA, also known as levodopa and -3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, is an amino acid that is made and used as part of the normal biology of some plants and animals, including humans. Humans, as well as a portion of the other animals that utilize -DOPA ...

methylphenidate Methylphenidate, sold under the brand names Ritalin and Concerta among others, is the most widely prescribed central nervous system (CNS) stimulant medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and, to a lesser exten ...

, modafinil,

GABA antagonist GABA receptor antagonists are drugs that inhibit the action of GABA. In general these drugs produce stimulant and convulsant effects, and are mainly used for counteracting overdoses of sedative drugs. Examples include bicuculline, securinine an ...

s such as DMCM,

FG-7142 FG-7142 (ZK-31906) is a drug which acts as a partial inverse agonist at the benzodiazepine allosteric site of the GABAA receptor. It has anorectic, anxiogenic and pro-convulsant effects. It also increases release of acetylcholine and noradrenalin ...

and

ZK-93426 ZK-93426 (ethyl-5-isopropoxy-4-methyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxylate) is a drug from the beta-carboline family. It acts as a weak partial inverse agonist of benzodiazepine receptors, meaning that it causes the opposite effects to the benzodiazepine ...

serotonergic Serotonergic () or serotoninergic () means "pertaining to or affecting serotonin". Serotonin is a neurotransmitter. A synapse is serotonergic if it uses serotonin as its neurotransmitter. A serotonergic neuron ''produces'' serotonin. A substance is ...

agents such as mCPP and

LY-293,284 LY-293284 is a research chemical developed by the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and used for scientific studies. It acts as a potent and selective 5-HT1A receptor full agonist. It was derived through structural simplification of the ergoline ...

adrenergic agents Adrenergic means "working on adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine)" (or on their receptors). When not further qualified, it is usually used in the sense of enhancing or mimicking the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine in ...

such as

yohimbine Yohimbine (), also known as quebrachine, is an indole alkaloid derived from the bark of the African tree '' Pausinystalia johimbe''; also from the bark of the unrelated South American tree ''Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco''. Yohimbine is an α2 ...

, psychoactive agents such as

THC Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis and one of at least 113 total cannabinoids identified on the plant. Although the chemical formula for THC (C21H30O2) describes multiple isomers, the term ''THC' ...

and

LSD Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), also known colloquially as acid, is a potent psychedelic drug. Effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception. At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, vi ...

in susceptible individuals,

antipsychotics Antipsychotics, also known as neuroleptics, are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of ...

dopamine antagonist A dopamine antagonist, also known as an anti-dopaminergic and a dopamine receptor antagonist (DRA), is a type of drug which blocks dopamine receptors by receptor antagonism. Most antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists, and as such they have ...

s such as

ecopipam Ecopipam (development codes SCH-39166, EBS-101, and PSYRX-101) is a dopamine antagonist which is under development for the treatment of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, Tourette's syndrome, speech disorders, and restless legs syndrome. It is taken by mouth ...

and

reserpine Reserpine is a drug that is used for the treatment of high blood pressure, usually in combination with a thiazide diuretic or vasodilator. Large clinical trials have shown that combined treatment with reserpine plus a thiazide diuretic reduces m ...

, and

cholecystokinin Cholecystokinin (CCK or CCK-PZ; from Greek ''chole'', "bile"; ''cysto'', "sac"; ''kinin'', "move"; hence, ''move the bile-sac (gallbladder)'') is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat an ...

(CCK) (especially the tetrapeptide and octapeptide fragments

CCK-4 Cholecystokinin tetrapeptide (CCK-4, Trp- Met- Asp- Phe-NH2) is a peptide fragment derived from the larger peptide hormone cholecystokinin. Unlike cholecystokin which has a variety of roles in the gastrointestinal system as well as central nervou ...

and CCK-8). Sodium lactate given intravenously has been proven to cause

panic attacks Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear and discomfort that may include palpitations, sweating, chest pain or chest discomfort, shortness of breath, trembling, dizziness, numbness, confusion, or a feeling of impending doom or of losing ...

in people with a panic disorder but not in people with no such history. The GABA_A receptor

negative allosteric modulator In pharmacology and biochemistry, allosteric modulators are a group of substances that bind to a receptor to change that receptor's response to stimulus. Some of them, like benzodiazepines, are drugs. The site that an allosteric modulator binds t ...

flumazenil Flumazenil (also known as flumazepil, code name Ro 15-1788) is a selective GABAA receptor antagonist administered via injection, otic insertion, or intranasally. Therapeutically, it acts as both an antagonist and antidote to benzodiazepines ( ...

can cause panic attacks in people with panic disorder.

Anxiolytic An anxiolytic (; also antipanic or antianxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiet ...

substances have the opposite effect: they reduce anxiety. The most common class of anxiolytic drugs are the benzodiazepines. However, studies suggest that benzodiazepines may be anxiogenic in the long term.Galanter, Marc (1 July 2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment) (4 ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 197. .

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other psychological conditions. SSRIs increase the extracellul ...

are commonly prescribed antidepressants that treat anxiety in the long term. However, SSRIs are ineffective in the short-term treatment of acute panic attacks or acute anxiety.

References

External links

*{{Commons category-inline, Anxiogenics Drug classes defined by psychological effects

See also

References

External links