Over a thousand

indigenous language An indigenous language, or autochthonous language, is a language that is native to a region and spoken by indigenous peoples. This language is from a linguistically distinct community that originated in the area. Indigenous languages are not neces ...

s are spoken by the

Indigenous peoples of the Americas The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples. Many Indigenous peoples of the A ...

. These languages cannot all be demonstrated to be related to each other and are classified into a hundred or so

language families A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in hi ...

(including a large number of

language isolate Language isolates are languages that cannot be classified into larger language families. Korean and Basque are two of the most common examples. Other language isolates include Ainu in Asia, Sandawe in Africa, and Haida in North America. The nu ...

s), as well as a number of extinct languages that are

unclassified Classified information is material that a government body deems to be sensitive information that must be protected. Access is restricted by law or regulation to particular groups of people with the necessary security clearance and need to know, ...

because of a lack of data. Many proposals have been made to relate some or all of these languages to each other, with varying degrees of success. The most notorious is

Joseph Greenberg Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915 – May 7, 2001) was an American linguist, known mainly for his work concerning linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages. Life Early life and education Joseph Greenberg was born on ...

's Amerind hypothesis, which however nearly all specialists reject because of severe methodological flaws; spurious data; and a failure to distinguish cognation,

contact Contact may refer to: Interaction Physical interaction * Contact (geology), a common geological feature * Contact lens or contact, a lens placed on the eye * Contact sport, a sport in which players make contact with other players or objects * C ...

, and coincidence. Nonetheless, there are indications that some of the recognized families are related to each other, such as widespread similarities in pronouns (e.g., ''n''/''m'' is a common pattern for 'I'/'you' across western North America, and ''ch''/''k''/''t'' for 'I'/'you'/'we' is similarly found in a more limited region of South America). According to

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...

, most of the Indigenous languages of the Americas are critically endangered, and many are dormant (without native speakers but with a community of heritage-language users) or entirely extinct.Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'' (15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. . (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com) The most widely spoken Indigenous languages are

Southern Quechua Southern Quechua ( qu, Urin qichwa, es, quechua sureño), or simply Quechua (Qichwa or Qhichwa), is the most widely spoken of the major regional groupings of mutually intelligible dialects within the Quechua language family, with about 6.9 mil ...

(spoken primarily in southern Peru and Bolivia) and Guarani (centered in Paraguay, where it is the national language), with perhaps six or seven million speakers apiece (including many of European descent in the case of Guarani). Only half a dozen others have more than a million speakers; these are Aymara of Bolivia and

Nahuatl Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have small ...

of Mexico, with almost two million each; the Mayan languages Kekchi, Quiché, and

Yucatec Yucatec Maya (; referred to by its speakers simply as Maya or as , is one of the 32 Mayan languages of the Mayan language family. Yucatec Maya is spoken in the Yucatán Peninsula and northern Belize. There is also a significant diasporic commu ...

of Guatemala and Mexico, with about 1 million apiece; and perhaps one or two additional Quechuan languages in Peru and Ecuador. In the United States, 372,000 people reported speaking an Indigenous language at home in the 2010 census, and similarly in Canada, 133,000 people reported speaking an Indigenous language at home in the 2011 census. In Greenland, about 90% of the population speaks Greenlandic, the most widely spoken Eskimo–Aleut language.

Background

Over a thousand known languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans. These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of

Greenland Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland ...

and failed efforts in

Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland and Labrador (; french: Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador; frequently abbreviated as NL) is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region ...

) and the end of the 15th century (the voyages of

Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus * lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo * es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón * pt, Cristóvão Colombo * ca, Cristòfor (or ) * la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...

). Several Indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own

writing system A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...

s, the best known being the

Maya script Maya script, also known as Maya glyphs, is historically the native writing system of the Maya civilization of Mesoamerica and is the only Mesoamerican writing system that has been substantially deciphered. The earliest inscriptions found which ...

. The Indigenous languages of the Americas had widely varying demographics, from the

Quechuan languages Quechua (, ; ), usually called ("people's language") in Quechuan languages, is an indigenous language family spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Peruvian Andes. Derived from a common ancestral language, it is the most widel ...

, Aymara, Guarani, and

, which had millions of active speakers, to many languages with only several hundred speakers. After pre-Columbian times, several Indigenous

creole language A creole language, or simply creole, is a stable natural language that develops from the simplifying and mixing of different languages into a new one within a fairly brief period of time: often, a pidgin evolved into a full-fledged language. ...

s developed in the Americas, based on European, Indigenous and African languages. The European colonizers and their successor states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the

Tupi language Old Tupi, Ancient Tupi or Classical Tupi (also spelled as Tupí) is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the aboriginal Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who inhabited coastal regions in South and Southeast Brazil. It belongs to ...

. In many Spanish colonies, Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and culture in order to preach to the natives in their own tongue and relate the Christian message to their Indigenous religions. In the British American colonies, John Eliot of the

Massachusetts Bay Colony The Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630–1691), more formally the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, was an English settlement on the east coast of North America around the Massachusetts Bay, the northernmost of the several colonies later reorganized as th ...

translated the Bible into the

Massachusett language The Massachusett language is an Algonquian language of the Algic language family, formerly spoken by several peoples of eastern coastal and southeastern Massachusetts. In its revived form, it is spoken in four communities of Wampanoag people ...

, also called Wampanoag, or Natick (1661–1663); he published the first Bible printed in North America, the '' Eliot Indian Bible''. The Europeans also suppressed use of Indigenous languages, establishing their own languages for official communications, destroying texts in other languages, and insisting that Indigenous people learn European languages in schools. As a result, Indigenous languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. By the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch, brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, had become the official or national languages of modern nation-states of the Americas. Many Indigenous languages have become critically endangered, but others are vigorous and part of daily life for millions of people. Several Indigenous languages have been given official status in the countries where they occur, such as

Guaraní Guarani, Guaraní or Guarany may refer to Ethnography * Guaraní people, an indigenous people from South America's interior (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia) * Guaraní language, or Paraguayan Guarani, an official language of Paraguay * ...

Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to t ...

. In other cases official status is limited to certain regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in ''de facto'' official use. Examples are

Quechua Quechua may refer to: *Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru *Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language **So ...

in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts. In the North American Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 adopted

Kalaallisut Kalaallisut may refer to: * Greenlandic language * West Greenlandic West Greenlandic ( da, vestgrønlandsk), also known as Kalaallisut, is the primary language of Greenland and constitutes the Greenlandic language, spoken by the vast majority of ...

as its sole official language. In the United States, the

Navajo language Navajo or Navaho (; Navajo: or ) is a Southern Athabaskan language of the Na-Dené family, through which it is related to languages spoken across the western areas of North America. Navajo is spoken primarily in the Southwestern United Stat ...

is the most spoken Native American language, with more than 200,000 speakers in the

Southwestern United States The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, N ...

. The US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II.

Origins

In ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'' (1997),

Lyle Campbell Lyle Richard Campbell (born October 22, 1942) is an American scholar and linguist known for his studies of indigenous American languages, especially those of Central America, and on historical linguistics in general. Campbell is professor emeri ...

lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages. * A single, one-language migration (not widely accepted) * A few linguistically distinct migrations (favored by

Edward Sapir Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American Jewish anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States. Sap ...

) * Multiple migrations * Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages) * The influx of already diversified but related languages from the

Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by thei ...

* Extinction of

linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived) * Migration along the Pacific coast instead of by the Bering Strait

Roger Blench Roger Marsh Blench (born August 1, 1953) is a British linguist, ethnomusicologist and development anthropologist. He has an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is based in Cambridge, England. He researches, publishes, and w ...

(2008) has advocated the theory of multiple migrations along the Pacific coast of peoples from northeastern Asia, who already spoke diverse languages. These proliferated in the New World.

Numbers of speakers and political recognition

Countries like Mexico, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guatemala, and Guyana recognize all or most Indigenous languages native to their respective countries, with Bolivia and Venezuela elevating all Indigenous languages to

official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...

status according to their constitutions. Colombia delegates local Indigenous language recognition to the department level according to the

Colombian Constitution of 1991 The Political Constitution of Colombia of 1991 ( es, Constitución Política de Colombia de 1991), is the Constitution of the Republic of Colombia. It was promulgated in Constitutional Gazette number 114 on Thursday, July 4, 1991, and is als ...

. Countries like Canada, Argentina, and the United States allow their respective provinces and states to determine their own language recognition policies. Indigenous language recognition in Brazil is limited to their localities. * Bullet points represent minority language status. Political entities with

status are highlighted in bold.

Language families and unclassified languages

Notes: *

Extinct language An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language has no living descendants. In contrast, a dead language is one that is no longer the native language of any community, even if it is still in use, l ...

s or families are indicated by: ''†''. * The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages). * For convenience, the following list of language families is divided into three sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, and South America) but are not equivalent. This division cannot fully delineate Indigenous culture areas.

Northern America

There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) Indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The

Na-Dené Na-Dene (; also Nadene, Na-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit, Tlina–Dene) is a family of Native American languages that includes at least the Athabaskan languages, Eyak, and Tlingit languages. Haida was formerly included, but is now considered ...

Algic The Algic languages (also Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok or Algonquian–Ritwan) are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily, dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to ...

, and

Uto-Aztecan Uto-Aztecan, Uto-Aztekan or (rarely in English) Uto-Nahuatl is a family of indigenous languages of the Americas, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The na ...

families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of

); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of

Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest fe ...

), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly

Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations. In Canada, over 350,000 people are Cree o ...

and

Ojibwe The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...

). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in

California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...

( Yurok and

Wiyot The Wiyot (Wiyot: Wíyot, Chetco-Tolowa: Wee-’at xee-she or Wee-yan’ Xee-she’, Euchre Creek Tututni: Wii-yat-dv-ne - "Mad River People“, Yurok: Weyet) are an indigenous people of California living near Humboldt Bay, California and a sma ...

); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through

Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...

Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...

, and California to the

U.S. Southwest The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, N ...

and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-) family proposals,

Penutian Penutian is a proposed grouping of language families that includes many Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The existence of a Penutian s ...

and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain. North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California. This area has 18 language families comprising 74 languages (compared to four families in Europe:

Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Du ...

Uralic The Uralic languages (; sometimes called Uralian languages ) form a language family of 38 languages spoken by approximately 25million people, predominantly in Northern Eurasia. The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian lan ...

, Turkic, and

Afroasiatic The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic su ...

and one isolate,

Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...

). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the

Southeastern Woodlands Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, Southeastern cultures, or Southeast Indians are an ethnographic classification for Native Americans who have traditionally inhabited the area now part of the Southeastern United States and the n ...

; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record. This diversity has influenced the development of linguistic theories and practice in the US. Due to the diversity of languages in North America, it is difficult to make generalizations for the region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. three to five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the

Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Thou ...

are notable for their complex

phonotactics Phonotactics (from Ancient Greek "voice, sound" and "having to do with arranging") is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable struc ...

(for example, some languages have words that lack

vowel A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (len ...

s entirely). The languages of the

Plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ...

area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to

Afroasiatic languages The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic ...

and the

languages of the Caucasus The Caucasian languages comprise a large and extremely varied array of languages spoken by more than ten million people in and around the Caucasus Mountains, which lie between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Linguistic comparison allows t ...

Ejective consonant In phonetics, ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced and tenuis consonants. So ...

s are also common in western North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...

region, parts of Africa, and the

Mayan Mayan most commonly refers to: * Maya peoples, various indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Maya civilization, pre-Columbian culture of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Mayan languages, language family spoken ...

family). Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (

Eskimo–Aleut languages The Eskaleut (), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of w ...

are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of the

Tanoan languages Tanoan , also Kiowa–Tanoan or Tanoan–Kiowa, is a family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most of the languages – Tiwa (Taos, Picuris, Southern Tiwa), Tewa, and Towa – ...

, the lexical

affix In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ...

es of the

Wakashan Wakashan is a family of languages spoken in British Columbia around and on Vancouver Island, and in the northwestern corner of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, on the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. As is typical of the Nor ...

Salishan The Salishan (also Salish) languages are a family of languages of the Pacific Northwest in North America (the Canadian province of British Columbia and the American states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana). They are characterised by ...

and

Chimakuan languages The Chimakuan languages are a group of extinct languages that were spoken in northwestern Washington state, United States, on the Olympic Peninsula. They were spoken by Chimakum, Quileute and Hoh tribes. They are part of the Mosan sprachbund, ...

, and the unusual verb structure of Na-Dené. The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999). * Adai ''†'' *

(30) *

Alsea The Alsea are a Native American tribe of Western Oregon. They are (since 1856), confederated with other Tribes on the Siletz Reservation, Oregon, and are members of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz. Their origin story says that the Yaquina, Al ...

(2) ''†'' *

Atakapa The Atakapa Sturtevant, 659 or Atacapa were an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, who spoke the Atakapa language and historically lived along the Gulf of Mexico in what is now Texas and Louisiana. They included several distinct band ...

''†'' *

Beothuk The Beothuk ( or ; also spelled Beothuck) were a group of indigenous people who lived on the island of Newfoundland. Beginning around AD 1500, the Beothuk culture formed. This appeared to be the most recent cultural manifestation of peoples w ...

''†'' *

Caddoan The Caddoan languages are a family of languages native to the Great Plains spoken by tribal groups of the central United States, from present-day North Dakota south to Oklahoma. All Caddoan languages are critically endangered, as the number ...

(5) * Cayuse ''†'' *

Chimakuan The Chimakuan languages are a group of extinct languages that were spoken in northwestern Washington state, United States, on the Olympic Peninsula. They were spoken by Chimakum, Quileute and Hoh tribes. They are part of the Mosan sprachbund ...

(2) ''†'' * Chimariko ''†'' *

Chinookan The Chinookan languages were a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples. Although the last known native speaker of any Chinookan language died in 2012, the 2009-2013 American Community ...

(3) ''†'' *

Chitimacha The Chitimacha ( ; or ) are a federally recognized tribe of Native Americans who live in the U.S. state of Louisiana, mainly on their reservation in St. Mary Parish near Charenton on Bayou Teche. They are the only Indigenous people in the st ...

''†'' *

Chumashan Chumashan was a family of languages that were spoken on the southern California coast by Native American Chumash people, from the Coastal plains and valleys of San Luis Obispo to Malibu, neighboring inland and Transverse Ranges valleys and ca ...

(6) ''†'' *

Coahuilteco Coahuilteco was one of the Pakawan languages that was spoken in southern Texas (United States) and northeastern Coahuila (Mexico). It is now extinct. Classification Coahuilteco was grouped in an eponymous Coahuiltecan family by John Wesley Powe ...

''†'' * Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) ''†'' *

Coosan Coosan () is a townland and suburb just north of Athlone, County Westmeath in Ireland. The suburb is surrounded on three sides by Lough Ree and on one side by Athlone. Coosan attracts tourists over the summer months due to its location on the ...

(2) ''†'' *

Cotoname Cotoname was a Pakawan language spoken by Native Americans indigenous to the lower Rio Grande Valley of northeastern Mexico and extreme southern Texas ( United States). Today it is extinct. Vocabulary The following vocabulary list of Coton ...

''†'' *

Eskimo–Aleut The Eskaleut (), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of w ...

(7) *

Esselen The Esselen are a Native American people belonging to a linguistic group in the hypothetical Hokan language family, who are indigenous to the Santa Lucia Mountains of a region south of the Big Sur River in Big Sur, Monterey County, Califor ...

''†'' *

Haida Haida may refer to: Places * Haida, an old name for Nový Bor * Haida Gwaii, meaning "Islands of the People", formerly called the Queen Charlotte Islands * Haida Islands, a different archipelago near Bella Bella, British Columbia Ships * , a ...

Iroquoian The Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, all surviving Iroquoia ...

(11) * Kalapuyan (3) ''†'' *

Karankawa The Karankawa were an Indigenous people concentrated in southern Texas along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, largely in the lower Colorado River and Brazos River valleys."Karankawa." In ''Cassell's Peoples, Nations and Cultures,'' edited by John ...

''†'' *

Karuk The Karuk people are an indigenous people of California, and the Karuk Tribe is one of the largest tribes in California. Karuks are also enrolled in two other federally recognized tribes, the Cher-Ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad ...

Keresan Keres (), also Keresan (), is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. The varieties of ea ...

(2) * Kutenai * Maiduan (4) *

Muskogean Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a Native American language family spoken in different areas of the Southeastern United States. Though the debate concerning their interrelationships is ongoing, the Muskogean languages are generally div ...

(9) *

(United States, Canada & Mexico) (39) * Natchez ''†'' *

Palaihnihan Palaihnihan (also Palaihnih) is a language family of northeastern California. It consists of two closely related languages, both now extinct: # Atsugewi ''(†)'' # Achumawi ''(†)'' (ís siwa wó disi, also known as Achomawi, Pit River India ...

(2) ''†'' * Plateau Penutian languages, Plateau Penutian (4) * Pomoan languages, Pomoan (7) * Salinan language, Salinan ''†'' *

(23) * Shastan languages, Shastan (4) ''†'' * Siouan languages, Siouan (19) * Siuslaw language, Siuslaw ''†'' * Solano language, Solano ''†'' * Takelma language, Takelma ''†'' * Tanoan languages, Tanoan (7) * Timucua language, Timucua ''†'' * Tonkawa language, Tonkawa ''†'' * Tsimshianic languages, Tsimshianic (2) * Tunica language, Tunica ''†'' * Utian languages, Utian (15) *

(33) *

(7) * Wappo language, Wappo ''†'' * Washo language, Washo * Wintuan languages, Wintuan (4) * Yana language, Yana ''†'' * Yokutsan languages, Yokutsan (3) * Yuchi language, Yuchi * Yuki language, Yuki ''†'' * Yuman–Cochimí languages, Yuman–Cochimí (11) * Zuni language, Zuni

Central America and Mexico

In Central America the Mayan languages are among those used today. Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million Indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, Belize and Honduras. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognizes eight more. The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 4,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method. * Alaguilac language, Alagüilac ''(Guatemala)'' ''†'' * Chibchan languages, Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) *

''†'' * Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) ''†'' *

''†'' * Cuitlatec language, Cuitlatec ''(Mexico: Guerrero)'' ''†'' * Epi-Olmec language, Epi-Olmec ''(Mexico: language of undeciphered inscriptions)'' ''†'' * Guaicurian languages, Guaicurian (8) ''†'' * Huave languages, Huave * Jicaque languages, Jicaquean (2) * Lenca language, Lencan (2) ''†'' * Maratino language, Maratino ''(northeastern Mexico)'' ''†'' *

(31) * Misumalpan languages, Misumalpan (5) * Mixe–Zoquean languages, Mixe–Zoquean (19) * Naolan language, Naolan ''(Mexico: Tamaulipas)'' ''†'' * Oto-Manguean languages, Oto-Manguean (27) * Pericú language, Pericú ''†'' * Purépecha language, Purépecha * Quinigua language, Quinigua ''(northeast Mexico)'' ''†'' * Seri language, Seri * Solano language, Solano ''†'' * Tequistlatecan languages, Tequistlatecan (3) * Totonacan languages, Totonacan (2) *

(United States & Mexico) (33) * Xincan languages, Xincan (5) ''†'' * Yuman languages, Yuman (United States & Mexico) (11)

South America and the Caribbean

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and several hundred more spoken at first contact but now extinct. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:

Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem. It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that areamuch smaller than SA, to be sureis in general much better documented than any part of Indigenous SA of comparable size.

As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground. The list of language families, isolates, and unclassified languages below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the #Language stock proposals, Language stock proposals section below. * Aguano language, Aguano ''†'' * Aikana language, Aikaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia)'' * Andaquí language, Andaquí ''†'' * Andoque language, Andoque ''(Colombia, Peru)'' * Andoquero language, Andoquero ''†'' * Arawan languages, Arauan (9) * Maipurean languages, Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (64) * Arutani language, Arutani * Aymaran languages, Aymaran (3) * Baenan language, Baenan ''(Brazil: Bahia)'' ''†'' * Barbacoan languages, Barbacoan (8) * Betoi language, Betoi ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' * Bororoan languages, Bororoan * Botocudoan languages, Botocudoan (3) * Cahuapanan languages, Cahuapanan (2) * Camsá language, Camsá ''(Colombia)'' * Candoshi language, Candoshi * Canichana language, Canichana ''(Bolivia)'' * Carabayo language, Carabayo * Cariban languages, Cariban (29) * Catacaoan languages, Catacaoan ''†'' * Cayubaba language, Cayubaba ''(Bolivia)'' * Chapacuran languages, Chapacuran (9) * Charruan languages, Charruan ''†'' * Chibchan languages, Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) * Chimuan languages, Chimuan (3) ''†'' * Chipaya–Uru languages, Chipaya–Uru * Chiquitano language, Chiquitano * Choco languages, Choco (10) * Chon languages, Chon (2) * Chono language, Chono ''†'' * Coeruna language, Coeruna ''(Brazil)'' ''†'' * Cofán language, Cofán ''(Colombia, Ecuador)'' * Cueva language, Cueva ''†'' * Culle language, Culle ''(Peru)'' ''†'' * Cunza language, Cunza ''(Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)'' ''†'' * Esmeraldeño language, Esmeraldeño ''†'' * Fulnió language, Fulnió * Gamela language, Gamela ''(Brazil: Maranhão)'' ''†'' * Gorgotoqui language, Gorgotoqui ''(Bolivia)'' ''†'' * Guaicuruan languages, Guaicuruan (7) * Guajiboan languages, Guajiboan (4) * Guamo language, Guamo ''(Venezuela)'' ''†'' * Guató language, Guató * Harakmbut languages, Harakmbut (2) * Hibito–Cholon languages, Hibito–Cholon ''†'' * Himarimã language, Himarimã * Hodï language, Hodï ''(Venezuela)'' * Huamoé language, Huamoé ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' * Huaorani language, Huaorani ''(Ecuador, Peru)'' * Huarpe language, Huarpe ''†'' * Irantxe language, Irantxe ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' * Itonama language, Itonama ''(Bolivia)'' * Jabutian languages, Jabutian * Je languages, Je (13) * Jeikó language, Jeikó ''†'' * Jirajaran languages, Jirajaran (3) ''†'' * Jivaroan languages, Jivaroan (2) * Kaimbe language, Kaimbe * Kaliana language, Kaliana * Kamakanan languages, Kamakanan ''†'' * Kapixaná language, Kapixaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia)'' * Karajá language, Karajá * Kariri languages, Karirí ''(Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) ''†'' * Katembrí language, Katembrí ''†'' * Katukinan languages, Katukinan (3) * Kawésqar language, Kawésqar ''(Chile)'' * Kwaza language, Kwaza (Koayá) ''(Brazil: Rondônia) * Leco language, Leco * Lule language, Lule ''(Argentina)'' * Máku language, Máku * Malibu languages, Malibú * Mapudungun ''(Chile, Argentina)'' * Mascoyan languages, Mascoyan (5) * Matacoan languages, Matacoan (4) * Matanawí language, Matanawí ''†'' * Maxakalían languages, Maxakalían (3) * Mocana language, Mocana ''(Colombia: Tubará)'' ''†'' * Mosetenan languages, Mosetenan * Movima language, Movima ''(Bolivia)'' * Munichi language, Munichi ''(Peru)'' * Muran languages, Muran (4) * Mutú language, Mutú * Nadahup languages, Nadahup (5) * Nambiquaran languages, Nambiquaran (5) * Natú language, Natú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' * Nonuya language, Nonuya ''(Peru, Colombia)'' * Ofayé language, Ofayé * Old Catío–Nutabe language, Old Catío–Nutabe ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' * Omurano language, Omurano ''(Peru)'' ''†'' * Otí language, Otí ''(Brazil: São Paulo)'' ''†'' * Otomakoan languages, Otomakoan (2) ''†'' * Páez language, Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe) * Palta language, Palta ''†'' * Pankararú language, Pankararú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' * Pano–Tacanan languages, Pano–Tacanan (33) * Panzaleo language, Panzaleo ''(Ecuador)'' ''†'' * Patagon language (Peru), Patagon ''†'' ''(Peru)'' * Peba–Yaguan languages, Peba–Yaguan (2) * Pijao language, Pijao† * Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles (Guanahatabey language, Guanahatabey, Macorix language, Macorix, Ciguayo language, Ciguayo) ''†'' ''(Cuba, Hispaniola)'' * Puelche language, Puelche ''(Chile)'' ''†'' * Puinave language, Puinave * Puquina language, Puquina ''(Bolivia)'' ''†'' * Purian languages, Purian (2) ''†'' * Quechuan languages, Quechuan (46) * Rikbaktsá language, Rikbaktsá * Saliban languages, Saliban (2) * Sechura language, Sechura ''†'' * Tabancale language, Tabancale ''†'' ''(Peru)'' * Tairona language, Tairona ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' * Tarairiú language, Tarairiú ''(Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)'' ''†'' * Taruma language, Taruma ''†'' * Taushiro language, Taushiro ''(Peru)'' * Tequiraca language, Tequiraca ''(Peru)'' ''†'' * Teushen language, Teushen ''†'' ''(Patagonia, Argentina)'' * Ticuna language, Ticuna ''(Colombia, Peru, Brazil)'' * Timotean languages, Timotean (2) ''†'' * Tiniguan languages, Tiniguan (2) ''†'' * Trumai language, Trumai ''(Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)'' * Tucanoan languages, Tucanoan (15) * Tupian languages, Tupian (70, including Guaraní) * Tuxá language, Tuxá ''(Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)'' ''†'' * Urarina language, Urarina * Vilela language, Vilela * Wakona language, Wakona ''†'' * Warao language, Warao ''(Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)'' * Witotoan languages, Witotoan (6) * Xokó language, Xokó ''(Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)'' ''†'' * Xukurú language, Xukurú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)'' ''†'' * Yaghan language, Yaghan ''(Chile)'' * Yanomaman languages, Yanomaman (4) * Yaruro language, Yaruro * Yuracare language, Yuracare ''(Bolivia)'' * Yuri language (South America), Yuri ''(Colombia, Brazil)'' ''†'' * Yurumanguí language, Yurumanguí ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' * Zamucoan languages, Zamucoan (2) * Zaparoan languages, Zaparoan (5)

Language stock proposals

Hypothetical language-family proposals of American languages are often cited as uncontroversial in popular writing. However, many of these proposals have not been fully demonstrated, or even demonstrated at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the

stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan–Siouan, which, incidentally,

called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals: * Algonquian–Wakashan * Almosan–Keresiouan * Amerind * Algonkian–Gulf * (macro-)Arawakan * Arutani–Sape languages, Arutani–Sape * Aztec–Tanoan * Chibchan–Paezan * Chikitano–Boróroan * Chimu–Chipaya * Coahuiltecan * Cunza–Kapixanan * Dené–Caucasian languages, Dené–Caucasian * Dené–Yeniseian languages, Dené–Yeniseian * Esmeralda–Yaruro languages, Esmerelda–Yaruroan * Ge–Pano–Carib * Guamo–Chapacuran * Gulf languages, Gulf * Hibito–Cholon languages, Macro-Kulyi–Cholónan * Hokan * Hokan–Siouan * Je–Tupi–Carib * Jivaroan–Cahuapanan * Kalianan * Kandoshi–Omurano–Taushiro * Katembri–Taruma languages, (Macro-)Katembri–Taruma * Kaweskar language area * Keresiouan * Lule–Vilela languages, Lule–Vilelan * Macro-Andean * Macro-Carib * Macro-Chibchan languages, Macro-Chibchan * Macro-Gê * Macro-Jibaro * Macro-Lekoan * Macro-Mayan * Macro-Otomákoan * Macro-Paesan * Macro-Panoan * Macro-Puinavean * Macro-Siouan languages, Macro-Siouan * Macro-Tucanoan * Macro-Tupí–Karibe * Macro-Waikurúan * Macro-Warpean languages, Macro-Warpean * Mataco–Guaicuru languages, Mataco–Guaicuru * Mosan languages, Mosan * Mosetén–Chonan languages, Mosetén–Chonan * Mura–Matanawian languages, Mura–Matanawian * Sapir's

including Haida people, Haida * Nostratic–Amerind * Paezan languages, Paezan * Paezan–Barbacoan languages, Paezan–Barbacoan *

**California Penutian **Oregon Penutian languages, Oregon Penutian **Mexican Penutian * Puinave–Maku languages, Puinave–Maku * Quechumaran languages, Quechumaran * Saparo–Yawan languages, Saparo–Yawan * Sechura–Catacao languages, Sechura–Catacao * Takelman languages, Takelman * Tequiraca–Canichana languages, Tequiraca–Canichana * Ticuna–Yuri languages, Ticuna–Yuri (Yuri–Ticunan) * Totozoque languages, Totozoque * Tunican languages, Tunican * Yok-Utian languages, Yok–Utian * Yuki–Wappo languages, Yuki–Wappo Good discussions of past proposals can be found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979). Amerindian linguist

also assigned different percentage values of probability and confidence for various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths. For example, the Germanic languages, Germanic language family would receive probability and confidence percentage values of +100% and 100%, respectively. However, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be −95%, while the confidence value might be 95%. 0% probability or confidence would mean complete uncertainty.

Pronouns

It has long been observed that a remarkable number of Native American languages have a pronominal pattern with first-person singular forms in ''n'' and second-person singular forms in ''m''. (Compare first-person singular ''m'' and second-person singular ''t'' across much of northern Eurasia, as in English ''me'' and ''thee'', Spanish ''me'' and ''te'', and Hungarian ''-m'' and ''-d''.) This pattern was first noted by Alfredo Trombetti in 1905. It caused Sapir to suggest that ultimately all Native American languages would turn out to be related. In a personal letter to Alfred L. Kroeber, A. L. Kroeber he wrote (Sapir 1918):See Sapir 1918 The supposed "n/m – I/you" pattern has attracted attention even from those linguists who are normally critical of such long-distance proposals. Johanna Nichols investigated the distribution of the languages that have an n/m pattern and found that they are mostly confined to the western coast of the Americas, and that similarly they exist in East Asia and northern New Guinea. She suggested that they had spread through diffusion. This notion was rejected by Lyle Campbell, who argued that the frequency of the n/m pattern was not statistically elevated in either area compared to the rest of the world. Campbell also showed that several of the languages that have the contrast today did not have it historically and stated that the pattern was largely consistent with chance resemblance, especially when taking into consideration the statistic prevalence of nasal consonants in all the pronominal systems of the world.Campbell 1997 Zamponi found that Nichols's findings were distorted by her small sample size, and that some ''n–m'' languages were recent developments (though also that some languages had lost an ancestral ''n–m'' pattern), but he did find a statistical excess of the ''n–m'' pattern in western North America only. Looking at families rather than individual languages, he found a rate of 30% of families/protolanguages in North America, all on the western flank, compared to 5% in South America and 7% of non-American languages – though the percentage in North America, and especially the even higher number in the Pacific Northwest, drops considerably if Hokan and Penutian, or parts of them, are accepted as language families. If all the proposed Penutian and Hokan languages in the table below are related, then the frequency drops to 9% of North American families, statistically indistinguishable from the world average.Raoul Zamponi (2017) 'First-person n and second-person m in Native America: a fresh look'. ''Italian Journal of Linguistics'', 29.2 Below is a list of families with both 1sg ''n'' and 2sg ''m'', though in some cases the evidence for one of the forms is weak. Other scattered families may have one or the other but not both. Besides Proto-Eskaleut and Proto-Na–Dene, the families in North America with neither 1sg ''n'' or 2sg ''m'' are Atakapan, Chitimacha, Cuitlatec, Haida, Kutenai, Proto-Caddoan, Proto-Chimakuan, Proto-Comecrudan, Proto-Iroquoian, Proto-Muskogean, Proto-Siouan-Catawba, Tonkawa, Waikuri, Yana, Yuchi, Zuni. There are also a number of neighboring families in South America that have a ''tʃ–k'' pattern (the Duho languages, Duho proposal, plus possibly Arutani–Sape languages, Arutani–Sape), or an ''i–a'' pattern (the Macro-Jê proposal, including Fulnio and Chiquitano, plus Matacoan,Guaicuruan has 1sg ''i'' only Zamucoan and Payagua language, Payaguá).

Linguistic areas

Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below. * Ais language, Ais * Akokisa language, Akokisa * Aranama language, Aranama * Ausaima language, Ausaima * Avoyel language, Avoyel * Bayogoula language, Bayagoula * Bidai language, Bidai * Cacán language, Cacán (Diaguita language, Diaguita–Calchaquí language, Calchaquí) * Calusa language, Calusa - Mayaimi - Tequesta language, Tequesta * Cusabo language, Cusabo * Eyeish language, Eyeish * Grigra language, Grigra * Guale language, Guale * Houma language, Houma * Koroa language, Koroa * Mayaca language, Mayaca (possibly related to Ais) * Mobila language, Mobila * Okelousa language, Okelousa * Opelousa language, Opelousa * Pascagoula language, Pascagoula * Pensacola people, Pensacola - Chatot people, Chatot (Muscogean languages, possibly related to Choctaw) * Pijao language * Pisabo language, Pisabo (possibly the same language as Matsés language, Matsés) * Quinipissa language, Quinipissa * Taensa language, Taensa * Tiou language, Tiou * Yamacraw language, Yamacraw * Yamasee language, Yamasee * Yazoo language, Yazoo Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

Pidgins and mixed languages

Various miscellaneous languages such as pidgins, mixed languages, trade languages, and sign languages are given below in alphabetical order. # American Indian Pidgin English # Algonquian-Basque pidgin # Ojibwe language#Broken Oghibbeway, Broken Oghibbeway # Broken Slavey # Bungee language, Bungee # Callahuaya language, Callahuaya # Island Carib language, Carib Pidgin # Carib Pidgin–Arawak Mixed Language # Catalangu # Chinook Jargon # Delaware Jargon # Eskimo Trade Jargon # Greenlandic Pidgin (West Greenlandic Pidgin) # Guajiro-Spanish # Güegüence-Nicarao # Haida Jargon # Inuktitut-English Pidgin (Quebec) # Jargonized Powhatan # Keresan Sign Language # Labrador Eskimo Pidgin # Lingua Franca Apalachee language, Apalachee # Lingua Franca Creek language, Creek # Lingua Geral Amazônica # Lingua Geral do Sul # Loucheux Jargon # Media Lengua # Medny Aleut language, Mednyj Aleut # Michif # Mobilian Jargon # Montagnais Pidgin Basque # Nootka Jargon # Ocaneechi language, Ocaneechi # Pidgin Massachusett # Plains Indian Sign Language

Writing systems

While most Indigenous languages have adopted the Latin script as the written form of their languages, a few languages have their own unique writing systems after encountering the Latin script (often through missionaries) that are still in use. All pre-Columbian Indigenous writing systems are no longer used.

Notes

Bibliography

* Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), ''American Indian linguistics and literature'' (pp. 3–29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. * Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). ''American Indian linguistics and literature''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. . * Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). ''The American race''. New York: D. C. Hodges. * Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. . * Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''. Austin: University of Texas Press.

North America

* Boas, Franz. (1911). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
on archive.org
* Boas, Franz. (1922). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
on archive.org
* Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. ''Language'', ''5'', 1–7. * Boas, Franz. (1933). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
on archive.org
* Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 1, pp. 713–726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. * Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. . * Goddard, Ives. (1999). ''Native languages and language families of North America'' (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). . * Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the southeast. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''47'' (1), 1–60. * Mithun, Marianne. (1990)
Studies of North American Indian Languages
''Annual Review of Anthropology'', 19(1): 309–330. * Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); . * Nater, Hank F. (1984). The Bella Coola Language. Mercury Series; Canadian Ethnology Service (No. 92). Ottawa: National Museums of Canada. * Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, ''Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell'', Lincoln: University of Nebraska). * Powell, John W. (1915). ''Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology''. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen. * Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). ''Linguistics in North America'' (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976). * Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). ''Native languages of the Americas''. New York: Plenum. * Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976). * Sherzer, Joel. (1976). ''An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico''. Amsterdam: North-Holland. * Sletcher, Michael, 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., ''Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History'', (2 vols., Oxford, 2005). * Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published). * Vaas, Rüdiger: 'Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner'. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: ''Spurensuche im Indianerland.'' Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7. * Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. ''Languages of the world'', Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''7'' (7): 121–150. * Zepeda, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), ''Endangered languages'' (pp. 135–155). Oxford: Berg.

South America

* Willem Adelaar, Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). ''The languages of the Andes''. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. * Fabre, Alain. (1998). "Manual de las lenguas indígenas sudamericanas, I-II". München: Lincom Europa. * Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. . * Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the world's languages'' (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge. * Key, Mary R. (1979). ''The grouping of South American languages''. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. * Čestmír Loukotka, Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). ''Classification of South American Indian languages''. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California. * Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), ''Handbook of South American Indians'' (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. * Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). ''Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América''. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. * Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). ''Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas''. São Paulo: Edições Loyola. * Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), ''Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics'' (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press. * Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In ''The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge'' (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd. * Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). ''Classification and index of the world's languages''. Amsterdam: Elsevier. .
Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project

External links

Catálogo de línguas indígenas sul-americanas

Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180929134719/http://www.athenapub.com/salang1.htm South American Languages]
Indigenous Peoples Languages: Articles, News, Videos

Documentation Center of the Linguistic Minorities of Panama

The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America

Indigenous Language Institute

The Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas
(SSILA)

(collection of ethnographic, linguistic, & historical material)

* [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/ Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica]
Programa de Formación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos

(University of California at Davis)
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Indigenous Languages Of The Americas Indigenous languages of the Americas, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Languages Proposed language families,

Background

Origins

Numbers of speakers and political recognition

Language families and unclassified languages

Northern America

Central America and Mexico

South America and the Caribbean

Language stock proposals

Pronouns

Linguistic areas

Unattested languages

Pidgins and mixed languages

Writing systems

See also

Notes

Bibliography

North America

South America

External links