Allied victory:
Peace of Paris
British recognition of American independence
End of the First British Empire
British retention of
Canada

Canada and Gibraltar
Territorial
changes
Great Britain cedes to the
United States

United States the area east of the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River and south of the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River
Great Britain cedes East Florida, West Florida, and
Menorca

Menorca to Spain
Great Britain cedes
Tobago

Tobago and
Senegal

Senegal to France
Dutch Republic

Dutch Republic cedes
Negapatnam

Negapatnam to Great Britain
Belligerents
Thirteen Colonies
(before 1776)
United States
(after 1776)
Vermont Republic[1]
French Empire[2][3]
Spanish Empire[4]
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic[5]
Mysore[6]
American Indians:
Oneida
Tuscarora
Catawba
Lenape
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Mahican
Mi'kmaq[7]
Abenaki
Cheraw
Seminole
Pee Dee
Lumbee
Watauga Association
British Empire
Hanover[8][9]
German mercenaries:
Hesse-Kassel
Hesse-Hanau
Waldeck
Brunswick
Ansbach
Anhalt-Zerbst
American Indians:
Onondaga
Mohawk
Cayuga
Seneca
Mi'kmaq[10]
Cherokee
Odawa
Muscogee
Susquehannock
Shawnee
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Thomas Chittenden
Louis XVI
Charles III
William V
Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali †
Tipu Sultan
full list...
George III
Lord North
Lord George Germain
full list...
Strength
United States:
Army & Militia:
40,000 (average)[11]
200,000 (total served)[12]
Navy:
5,000 sailors (peak 1779)[13]
53 frigates and sloops (total served)[13]
State Navies:
106 ships (total served)[14]
Privateers:
55,000 sailors (total served)[15]
1,697 ships[16]
Allies:
Army:
63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar)[17][18]
Navy:
146 ships-of-the-line (1782)[19]
American Indian Allies:
Unknown
Great Britain:
Army:
48,000 (America peak)[20]
121,000 (global 1781)[21]
7,500 (Gibraltar)[22]
Navy:
94 ships-of-the-line (1782)[19]
104 frigates (1781)[23]
37 sloops (1781)[24]
171,000 sailors[25]
Loyalists:
25,000 (total served)[26]
Hanoverians:
2,365 (total served)[27]
German mercenaries:
29,875 (total served)[28]
American Indian Allies:
13,000[29]
Casualties and losses
United States:
25,000–70,000 total dead[11][30]
6,800 killed in battle
17,000 died of disease[31]
France:
at least 7,000 dead
(2,112 in the United States)[32]
Spain:
5,000 killed[33]
Netherlands:
500 killed[33]
Total: 37,000–82,500+ soldiers dead
Great Britain:
Army:
43,633 total dead[34]
~9,372 killed in battle[35]
27,000 died of disease[11][36]
Navy:
1,243 killed in battle
18,500 died of disease (1776–1780)[37]
42,000 deserted[38]
Germans:
7,774 total dead
1,800 killed in battle
4,888 deserted[11]
Loyalists:
7,000 total dead
1,700 killed in battle
5,300 died of disease (estimated)[39]
Total: 78,200+ soldiers dead
v
t
e
American
Revolutionary War
Campaigns and theaters
Boston
Canada
New York and New Jersey
Saratoga
Philadelphia
Western
Northern
Northern (after Saratoga)
Southern
Yorktown
Naval
The
American Revolutionary War

American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the
American War of Independence,[40] was a global war that began as a
conflict between Great Britain and its
Thirteen Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Thirteen Colonies which
declared independence as the
United States

United States of America.[N 1]
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained
the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot
protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp
Act and escalated into boycotts, which culminated in 1773 with the
Sons of Liberty

Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in
Boston

Boston Harbor. Britain
responded by closing
Boston Harbor

Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive
measures against
Massachusetts

Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Massachusetts

Massachusetts colonists
responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow
government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown.
Twelve colonies formed a
Continental Congress

Continental Congress to coordinate their
resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively
seized power.[41]
British attempts to disarm the
Massachusetts

Massachusetts militia at Concord in
April 1775 led to open combat.
Militia

Militia forces then besieged Boston,
forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed
George Washington

George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an
American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the
British failed decisively. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress
voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir
William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York
City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at
Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the
British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne,
intending to isolate the
New England

New England Colonies. Instead of assisting
this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against
Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in
October 1777.
Burgoyne's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied
with the
Americans

Americans and entered the war in 1778, and
Spain

Spain joined the
war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the
United States. In 1780, the
Kingdom of Mysore

Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in
India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted
into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern
strategy" led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist
uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at
King's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia,
intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived
him of an escape. A Franco-American army led by the Comte de
Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis' army and, with no
sign of relief, he surrendered in October 1781.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament,
and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament
voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war
continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in
Gibraltar

Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On
September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris
in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the
United States

United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven
decisive,[42] but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts.
Spain

Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim
of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and
were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war
against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any
territorial changes.
Contents
1 Background
1.1 Taxation disputes
1.2 Colonial response
2 Course of the war
2.1 War breaks out (1775–1776)
2.2 Political reactions
2.3 British counter-offensive (1776–1777)
2.4 British northern strategy fails (1777–1778)
2.5 Foreign intervention
2.6 International war breaks out (1778–1780)
2.6.1 Europe
2.6.2 Americas
2.6.3 India
2.7 Stalemate in the North (1778–1780)
2.8 War in the South (1778–1781)
2.9 British defeat in America (1781)
2.10 North Ministry collapses
2.11 Final years of the war (1781–1783)
2.11.1 Europe
2.11.2 Americas
2.11.3 India
3 Peace of Paris
4 Aftermath
4.1 Casualties and losses
4.1.1
Americans

Americans and allies
4.1.2 British and allies
4.2 Financial debts
5 Analysis of combatants
5.1 Great Britain
5.1.1 Armed Forces
5.1.1.1 Recruitment
5.1.1.1.1 Loyalists and Hessians
5.1.1.2 Leadership
5.1.1.3 Logistics
5.1.1.4 Discipline
5.1.2 Strategic deficiencies
5.1.2.1 William Howe
5.1.2.2 Clinton and Cornwallis
5.1.3 Campaign issues
5.2 Patriots
5.3 African Americans
5.4 American Indians
5.5 Race and class
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 Reference literature
11 External links
11.1 Bibliographies
Background
Main article: American Revolution
Taxation disputes
Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax
because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by
a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives.[43]
Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually", an
idea that was criticized throughout the Empire.[44] Parliament did
repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass
laws that were binding on the colonies.[45] From 1767, Parliament
began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil
officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing
resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became
widespread.[46][47]
This iconic 1846 lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier

Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The
Destruction of Tea at
Boston

Boston Harbor"; the phrase "
Boston

Boston Tea Party"
had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of
the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.[48]
Enforcing the acts proved difficult. The seizure of the sloop Liberty
in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response,
British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite
colonists to face trial in England.[49] Tensions rose after the murder
of
Christopher Seider

Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into
outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston
Massacre.[50] In 1772, colonists in
Rhode Island

Rhode Island boarded and burned a
customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on
tea, passing the
Tea Act
.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Great_Britain_(1714-1801).svg.png)
Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy
East India Company
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_(1801).svg.png)
East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus
implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea
was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts
permitted British tea ships to remain in
Boston

Boston Harbor. So, the Sons
of Liberty destroyed the tea chests, an incident that later became
known as the "
Boston

Boston Tea Party".[51]
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed
Boston

Boston Harbor
until the tea was paid for and revoked the
Massachusetts

Massachusetts Charter,
taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts
Governor's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted
powers to undermine local democracy.[52][53] Further measures allowed
the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the
governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The
act's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the
ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials
to harass them with impunity.[54] Further laws allowed the governor to
billet troops in private property without permission.[55] The
colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts", and they
argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights
were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of
America.[56] The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties
into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist
sentiment.[57][58]
Colonial response
The colonists responded by establishing the
Massachusetts

Massachusetts Provincial
Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside
Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies[59][60]
convened the First
Continental Congress

Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The
Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament
to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a
compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain.[61][62] The
Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal
American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade
regulations for the benefit of the empire,[63] and they authorized
committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was
effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97% in 1775 compared to
1774.[62]
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared
Massachusetts

Massachusetts to be
in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony.[64][65]
It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West
Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the
Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased
Canadiens

Canadiens but
damaged New England's economy. These increasing tensions led to a
mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open
war.[66]
Thomas Gage

Thomas Gage was the British Commander-in-Chief and military
governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to
disarm the local militias.[67]
Course of the war
War breaks out (1775–1776)
Main articles: Battles of Lexington and Concord;
Boston

Boston campaign;
Invasion of Quebec (1775); Southern theater of the American
Revolutionary War § Early operations, 1775–1778; and Battle of
Nassau
Major Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance
stored at Concord.[68][69] Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to
conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia
converged on and laid siege to Boston.[70] On March 25, 4,500 British
reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and
Henry Clinton.[71] The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on
June 17 after a costly frontal assault,[72][73] leading Howe to
replace Gage.[74] Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack,
which had gained them little,[75] while Gage wrote to London stressing
the need for a large army to suppress the revolt.[76] On July 3,
George Washington

George Washington took command of the
Continental Army

Continental Army besieging
Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington's
surprise.[77] A plan was rejected to assault the city,[78] and the
Americans

Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776
with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga.[79] The
British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17, and they
sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New
York.[80]
Starting in August 1775, American Privateers began to raid villages in
Nova Scotia, first at Saint John, then Charlottetown and Yarmouth.
They continued in 1776 at Canso and then a land assault on Fort
Cumberland.
The British marching to Concord
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to
support them,[81] while the
Americans

Americans urged them to maintain their
neutrality.[82][83] In April 1775, Congress feared an Anglo-Indian
attack from
Canada

Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec had a
largely
Francophone

Francophone population and had been under British rule for
only 12 years,[84] and the
Americans

Americans expected that they would welcome
being liberated from the British.[85][86][87] The
Americans

Americans attacked
Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march[88] but were
defeated.[89][90] After a loose siege, the
Americans

Americans withdrew on May
6. 1776.[91][92] A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American
operations in Quebec.[93] However, the British could not conduct an
aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain. On
October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing them
to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign. The invasion cost
the Patriots their support in British public opinion,[94] while
aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted
Canadien

Canadien support.[95] The
Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no
further attempts to invade were ever made.[96]
British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American
assault at Sault-au-Matelot, Canada, December 1775
In Virginia, Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the
militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out.[97] He
issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 promising freedom for slaves
who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown.[98][99]
Dunmore's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, and
Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. Subsequent
negotiations broke down, so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the
town.[100]
Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist
and Patriot militias,[101] and the Loyalists were subsequently driven
out of the colony.[102] Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to
reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated
and Loyalist sentiment was subdued.[103] A troop of British regulars
set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on
Charleston on June 28, 1776,[104] but it failed and effectively left
the South in Patriot control until 1780.[105][106]
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition
against the Bahamas colony in the
British West Indies

British West Indies in order to
secure ordnance there.[107] On March 3, 1776, the
Americans

Americans landed
after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no
resistance.[108] They confiscated all the supplies that they could
load and sailed away on March 17.[109][110] The squadron reached New
London, Connecticut on April 8, after a brief skirmish with the Royal
Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6.[111]
Political reactions
Main articles:
Olive Branch Petition

Olive Branch Petition and
United States

United States Declaration of
Independence
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war,
which Parliament rejected as insincere.[112] King George then issued a
Proclamation of Rebellion

Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, which only served to
embolden the colonists in their determination to become
independent.[113] After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected
coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes.[114] British Tories
refused to compromise,[115] while Whigs argued that current policy
would drive the colonists towards independence.[116] Despite
opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort.[117]
The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America,[118] and Irish
Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time.[119]
Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the
King.[120]
The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the
British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military
capability.[121][122] The weak British response gave the Patriots the
advantage, and the British lost control over every colony.[123] The
army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent
abuses of power by the King.[124] Parliament secured treaties with
small German states for additional troops[125] and sent an army of
32,000 men to America after a year, the largest that it had ever sent
outside Europe at the time.[126]
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense
had boosted public support for independence.[127][128] On July 2,
Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and
one abstention,[129] issuing its declaration on July 4.[130]
Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New
York on July 9,[131] invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue
of the King and melting it to make bullets.[132] British Tories
criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of
equality to slaves.
Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents
to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived,[133] intending
to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so
meant possible imprisonment, exile, or even death.[134] American
Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising
medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, or even barred from
executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans.[135][136] Congress
enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war.[137]
Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated.
States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they
were owed.[138]
British counter-offensive (1776–1777)
Main article: New York and
New Jersey

New Jersey campaign
American soldiers in combat at the Battle of Long Island, 1776
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight
to the Americans.[139] He set sail in June 1776 and began landing
troops on
Staten Island
_under_the_Verrazano_Narrows_Bridge.jpg/500px-USS_Leyte_Gulf_(CG_55)_under_the_Verrazano_Narrows_Bridge.jpg)
Staten Island near the entrance to
New York Harbor

New York Harbor on July
2. Due to poor military intelligence, Washington split his army to
positions on
Manhattan Island

Manhattan Island and across the
East River

East River in western
Long Island,[140] and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was
rejected by the Americans.[141] On August 27, Howe outflanked
Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe restrained
his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington
instead.[142]
Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or
ordnance.[143] Following the withdrawal, the
Staten Island
_under_the_Verrazano_Narrows_Bridge.jpg/500px-USS_Leyte_Gulf_(CG_55)_under_the_Verrazano_Narrows_Bridge.jpg)
Staten Island Peace
Conference failed to negotiate peace, as the British delegates did not
possess the authority to recognize independence.[144][145] Howe then
seized control of
New York City

New York City on September 15, and unsuccessfully
engaged the
Americans

Americans the following day.[146] He attempted to encircle
Washington, but the
Americans

Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28,
the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which
Howe declined to attack Washington's army, instead concentrating his
efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.[147][148]
British warships forcing passage of the Hudson River
Washington's retreat left his forces isolated, and the British
captured an American fortification on November 16, taking 3,000
prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms "the most
disastrous defeat of the entire war".[149] Washington's army fell back
four days later.[150] Henry Clinton then captured Newport, Rhode
Island, an operation which he opposed, feeling that the 6,000 troops
assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of
Washington.[151][152][153] The American prisoners were then sent to
the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors
died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war
combined.[154] Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered
him to halt, and Washington marched away unmolested.[155][156]
The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to
fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments
expired at the end of the year.[157] Popular support wavered, morale
ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia.[158] Loyalist
activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New
York.[136]
Emanuel Leutze's famous 1851 depiction of Washington Crossing the
Delaware
News of the campaign was well received in Britain. Festivities took
place in London, public support reached a peak,[159][160] and the King
awarded the
Order of the Bath

Order of the Bath to William Howe. The successes led to
predictions that the British could win within a year.[161] The
American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington's
strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in
the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the
situation, and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting
began.[162] In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters and
were in a good place to resume campaigning.[163]
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware
River, and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New
Jersey the following morning, taking 900 prisoners.[164][165] The
decisive victory rescued the army's flagging morale and gave a new
hope to the cause for independence.[166] Cornwallis marched to retake
Trenton, but his efforts were repulsed on January 2.[167][168]
Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his
rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in
convincing the French and Spanish that the
Americans

Americans were worthwhile
allies, as well as recovering morale in the army.[169][170][171]
Washington entered winter quarters at
Morristown, New Jersey

Morristown, New Jersey on
January 6,[172] though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued.[173]
While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington's
amazement.[174]
British northern strategy fails (1777–1778)
Main articles:
Saratoga campaign

Saratoga campaign and Philadelphia campaign
In December 1776,
John Burgoyne

John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy
with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne's plan was to establish control of
the Champlain-George-Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating
New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern
colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in
abundance.[175]
"The Surrender at Saratoga" shows General
Daniel Morgan

Daniel Morgan in front of a
French de Vallière 4-pounder.
Burgoyne's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a
strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would
rendezvous at Albany.[176] Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly
capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a
garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the
Americans

Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded
the area of food.[177] Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger's diversionary
column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on
August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a
Hessian foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and
more than 700 troops were captured.[178] Meanwhile, the vast majority
of Burgoyne's Indian support abandoned him and Howe informed Burgoyne
he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be
unable to render aid.[179]
Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he
attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman's
Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne
then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and
critical supplies were running low.[180] On October 7, a British
reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with
heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the
Americans

Americans in pursuit,
and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and
supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, and 6,222
soldiers became prisoners of the Americans.[181] The decisive success
spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States,
securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of
foreign assistance.[182][183]
Washington and Lafayette inspect the troops at Valley Forge.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his
initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed.[184] Howe
declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via
the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to
assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a
time-consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him
completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult
to understand, Howe's critics accused him of treason.[185]
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he
failed to follow-up on the victory and destroy his army.[186][187] A
British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe
captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men
to Germantown, north of Philadelphia.[188] Washington launched a
surprise attack on Howe's garrison on October 4, which was eventually
repulsed.[189] Again, Howe did not follow-up on his victory, leaving
the American army intact and able to fight.[190] Later, after several
days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably
ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides.[191] Howe
ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have
deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies.[192] On December 19,
Washington's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor
conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500
troops.[193] Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to
attack, which critics observed could have ended the
war.[194][195][196]
The
Continental Army

Continental Army was put through a new training program,
supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian
methods of drilling.[197] Meanwhile, Howe resigned and was replaced by
Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.[198] Clinton received orders to abandon
Philadelphia and fortify New York following France's entry into the
war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the
reinvigorated
Americans

Americans in pursuit.[199] The two armies fought at
Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the
Americans

Americans holding the field,
greatly boosting morale and confidence.[200] By July, both armies were
back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
Foreign intervention
Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary War,
Spain

Spain in the
American Revolutionary War, and Carlisle Peace Commission
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over
foreign intervention. The
North ministry

North ministry sought reconciliation with
the colonies by consenting to their original demands,[201] although
Lord North refused to grant independence.[202] No positive reply was
received from the Americans.[203]
French troops storming Redoubt 9 during the Siege of Yorktown
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly
anti-British,[204] and he sought a casus belli to go to war with
Britain following the conquest of
Canada

Canada in 1763.[205] The French had
covertly supplied the
Americans

Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the
onset of the war,[204] proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga
campaign.[206][207][208] The French public favored war, though
Vergennes and King
Louis XVI
,_revêtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Antoine-François_Callet_-_Louis_XVI,_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_(1754-1793),_revêtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and
financial risk.[209] The American victory at Saratoga convinced the
French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile,[210] but doing so
also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain's
concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with
the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the
Caribbean.[211][212] To prevent this, France formally recognized the
United States

United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military
alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery,
end restrictions on
Dunkirk

Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India,
recover
Senegal

Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht
provisions pertaining to Anglo-French trade.[213][214]
Spain

Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so
she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New
Spain.[215][216] Congress hoped to persuade
Spain

Spain into an open
alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of
Aranda in 1776.[217]
Spain

Spain was still reluctant to make an early
commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat
against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with
Portugal, Spain's neighbor and a close ally of Britain.[218] However,
Spain

Spain affirmed its desire to support the
Americans

Americans the following year,
hoping to weaken Britain's empire.[219] In the Spanish-Portuguese War
(1776-77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779,
Spain

Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war
against Britain.[220]
Spain

Spain sought to recover
Gibraltar

Gibraltar and
Menorca

Menorca in
Europe, as well as Mobile and
Pensacola

Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel
the British from Central America.[221][222]
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain
had a European war to fight.[223] He did not welcome war with France,
but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it
and cited the British victories over France in the
Seven Years' War

Seven Years' War as
a reason to remain optimistic.[224] Britain tried in vain to find a
powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated,[225] preventing
Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one
theater,[226][227] and forcing a major diversion of military resources
from America.[228][229] Despite this, the King determined never to
recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies
indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the
Crown.[230] Mahan argues that Britain's attempt to fight in multiple
theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed,
citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in
detail.[231]
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally,
the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade
for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch
public forced them to deny the request.[232] Consequently, the British
attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military
support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops
were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West
Indies colonies.[233] French supplies bound for America had also
passed through Dutch ports.[204] The Republic maintained free trade
with France following France's declaration of war on Britain, citing a
prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by
confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently,
the Republic joined the
First League of Armed Neutrality

First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce
their neutral status.[234] The Republic had also given sanctuary to
American privateers[235] and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the
Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the
Republic's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.[236]
International war breaks out (1778–1780)
Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary War, Anglo-French
War (1778-1783),
Spain

Spain in the American Revolutionary War, Second
Anglo-Mysore War, and Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Europe
The Moonlight Battle of Cape St. Vincent, 16 January 1780 by Francis
Holman, painted 1780
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an
indecisive action off
Ushant

Ushant on 27 July 1778.[237]
Spain

Spain entered the
war on 12 April 1779, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar,[238]
Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24
June.[239] The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the
British were able to resupply the garrison.[240] Meanwhile, a plan was
formulated for a combined Franco-Spanish invasion of the British
mainland, but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor
planning, disease, logistical issues, and high financial
expenditures.[241][242] However, a diversionary Franco-American
squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul
Jones.[243] On 16 January 1780, the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy under George Rodney
scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade
of Gibraltar.[244]
A Franco-Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and
decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John
Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies.[245] The
defeat was catastrophic for Britain, which lost 52 merchant
ships,[246][247] 5 East Indiamen,[248][249] 80,000 muskets, equipment
for 40,000 troops, 294 guns,[250] and 3,144 men,[251] making it one of
the most complete naval captures ever made.[252] The loss was valued
at some £1.5 million (£181 million in today's money), dealing a
severe blow to British commerce.[253][254]
Americas
The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of
Barbados

Barbados and
Jamaica, intending to damage British trade.[255] French troops led by
the Marquis de Bouillé captured
Dominica

Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order
to improve communication among French
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean islands and to strike
a blow to privateering.[256][257] The British defeated a French naval
force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December.[258] Both
fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, but the
French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean and
began capturing British territories,[259] seizing St. Vincent on 18
June and Grenada on 4 July.[260] The British fleet under John Byron
was tactically defeated on July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from
Grenada,[261] the worst loss that the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy had suffered since
1690.[262] Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when
British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
At New Orleans Governor
Bernardo de Gálvez

Bernardo de Gálvez decided conquered West
Florida and Mobile.[263]
In Central America, the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain.
The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de
Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region.[264] After inadequate
first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived
on 16 October, and they captured the fort on 20 October.[265] However,
the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to
abandon the fort on 29 November;[266] Spanish troops subsequently
reoccupied it.[267] In 1780, Jamaica's governor John Dalling planned
an expedition to cut New
Spain

Spain in two by capturing Granada, which
would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River.[268]
A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780, led by John Polson
and Horatio Nelson.[269] They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and
laid siege, capturing it on 29 April.[270] The British were ravaged by
disease[271] and were running low on food due to poor logistics.[269]
They withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive
defeat;[272] some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest
British disaster of the war.[273]
India
Mysorean troops defeat the British at Pollilur, using rockets against
closely massed British infantry
The British
East India Company
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_(1801).svg.png)
East India Company moved quickly to capture French
possessions in
India

India when they learned about the hostilities with
France, and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two-week
siege.[274] The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of
India,[275] and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779[276]
where French ordnance passed through.
Mahé was under the protection of Mysore's ruler
Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali (the Tipu
Sultan), and tensions were already inflamed because the British had
supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him;[277] so the fall
of Mahé precipitated war.[278]
Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region
in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A British relief
force of 7,000 men[279] under
William Baille
.JPG/400px-Baillie_Dungeon,_Seringapatam_(2004).JPG)
William Baille was intercepted and
destroyed by the
Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan on 10 September, the worst defeat
suffered by a European army in
India

India at the time.[280]
Ali then renewed the siege at
Arcot

Arcot instead of pressing on for a
decisive victory against a second British army at Madras, capturing it
on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for
campaigning the following year.[281]
Stalemate in the North (1778–1780)
Main articles: Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War
after Saratoga and Western theater of the American Revolutionary War
"Give 'em Watts, boys!" – American troops repulse Wilhelm von
Knyphausen's attack at Springfield
Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his forces in
New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of
France into the war.[229] French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been
dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he
arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York.[282] The
Franco-American forces felt that New York's defenses were too
formidable for the French fleet,[283] and they opted to attack
Newport.[284] This effort was launched on August 29, but it failed
when the French opted to withdraw, and this displeased the
Americans.[285] The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the
majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at
Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the
Americans

Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus
Hook.[286][287]
In July, Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a
decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut.[288] That
month, a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine, but
it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in
1941.[289] The high frequency of
Iroquois

Iroquois raids on the locals
compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a
large number of
Iroquois

Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed
to stop the raids.[290][291] During the winter of 1779–80, the
Continental Army

Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge.[292]
Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war; the
national currency was virtually worthless; the army was plagued with
supply problems; desertion was common; and whole regiments mutinied
over the conditions in early 1780.[293][294]
Hamilton surrenders at Vincennes, February 29, 1779
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey. On June 7,
6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, but
they met stiff resistance from the local militia. The British held the
field, but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington's
main army and withdrew.[295] Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a
second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at
Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey.[296]
Meanwhile, American general
Benedict Arnold

Benedict Arnold had defected to the
British, and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West
Point by surrendering it to the enemy.[297] The plot was foiled when
British spy master
John André

John André was captured, so Arnold fled to British
lines in New York. He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing
to Loyalist public opinion, but the Patriots strongly condemned him as
a coward and turncoat.[298]
The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to
skirmishing and raids. An expedition of militia was halted due to
adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British
military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River.[299] Later
in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois
Country from the British. The
Americans

Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4
and then secured Vincennes, although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the
Americans

Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and
they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking
Hamilton prisoner.[300][301]
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as
part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf
coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds
of settlers were killed or captured.[302] The
Americans

Americans responded with
a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some
success, but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the
frontier.[303] French militia attempted to capture Detroit, but it
ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the
gathered troops on November 5.[304] The war in the west had become a
stalemate; the
Americans

Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously
defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land.[305]
War in the South (1778–1781)
Main article: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War
British troops besiege Charleston in 1780, by Alonzo Chappel
The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778,
after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base
there. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal
Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend
lucrative colonies against the Franco-Spanish fleets.[306] On December
29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and
British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support.[307]
There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779, but then a large
Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they
had to recognize their dependence upon the British. The British,
however, defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3,[308] and
then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The
operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British
troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists.[309]
In October, a combined Franco-American effort failed to recapture
Savannah. In May 1780, Henry Clinton captured Charleston, taking over
5,000 prisoners and effectively destroying the
Continental Army

Continental Army in the
south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when
Banastre Tarleton

Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing
Americans

Americans at Waxhaws on May
29.
American and British cavalry clash at the Battle of Cowpens; from an
1845 painting by William Ranney
[310]
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in
Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. Far fewer Loyalists
than expected joined him. In the interim, the war was carried on by
Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning
victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, Huck's Defeat, Stanly
County, and Lancaster County.
Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the
American effort in the south. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on
August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North
Carolina.[311] The British attempted to subjugate the countryside, and
Patriot militia continued to fight against them, so Cornwallis
dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as
he moved north.[312] This wing of Cornwallis' army was virtually
destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the
Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated
back into South Carolina.[313] In the interim, Washington replaced
Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.[314]
Greene was unable to confront the British directly, so he dispatched a
force under
Daniel Morgan

Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then
defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17,
1781 at Cowpens. Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a
substantial part of his army without adequate support,[315] but he
advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks, gambling that he
would receive substantial Loyalist support there. Greene evaded combat
with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted
war of attrition.[316]
By March, Greene's army had increased in size enough that he felt
confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford
Courthouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but Cornwallis' army
suffered irreplaceable casualties.[317] Compounding this, far fewer
Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected.[318]
Cornwallis' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to
Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the Patriots in control of the
interior of the Carolinas and Georgia.
Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South. The American troops
suffered a reversal at Hobkirk's Hill on April 25;[319] nonetheless,
they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area,
capturing Fort Watson[320] and Fort Motte.[321] Augusta was the last
major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah,
but the
Americans

Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6.[322] A British
force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in
a final effort to stop Greene, but the British casualties were so high
that they withdrew to Charleston.[323] Minor skirmishes continued in
the Carolinas until the end of the war, and British troops were
effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of
the conflict.[324]
British defeat in America (1781)
Main article: Yorktown campaign
The French (left) and British (right) lines exchange fire at the
Battle of the Chesapeake
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in
the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and he had written to
both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade.
Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut
supplies to Greene's army and precipitate a collapse of American
resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, favoring a
campaign farther north in the
Chesapeake Bay

Chesapeake Bay region.[325] Lord Germain
wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include
Clinton in the decision-making, even though Clinton was Cornwallis'
superior officer,[326] and Cornwallis then decided to move into
Virginia

Virginia without informing Clinton.[327] Clinton, however, had failed
to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781,[328]
owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot
Arbuthnot.[329]
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French
planners realized that closer cooperation with the
Americans

Americans was
required to achieve success.[330] The French fleet led by the Comte de
Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint
efforts in the north if naval support was needed.[331][332] Washington
and the
Comte de Rochambeau

Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options. Washington pushed
for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in
Virginia

Virginia where the British were less well-established and thus easier
to defeat.[333] Franco-American movements around New York caused
Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His
instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time, rarely forming
explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish
a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend
New York.[334] Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal
Navy.[335]
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by John Trumbull, 1797
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but he acquiesced to
the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred
target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco-American army moved
south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis.[336] The
British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the
French, but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist
Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance.[337] On September 5,
the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control
of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from
reinforcements and relief.[338] Despite the continued urging of his
subordinates,[339]
Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco-American
army before it had established siege works, expecting that
reinforcements would arrive from New York, and the Franco-American
army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28.[340] Cornwallis continued
to think that relief was imminent from Clinton, and he abandoned his
outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American
troops—serving to hasten his subsequent defeat.[341] The British
then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river
at Gloucester Point when a storm hit.[342] Cornwallis and his
subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling
supplies; they agreed that their situation was untenable and
negotiated a surrender on October 17, 1781,[343] and 7,685 soldiers
became prisoners of the Americans.[344] The same day as the surrender,
6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve
Yorktown.[345][346]
North Ministry collapses
The Gordon Riots, by John Seymour Lucas
On 25 November 1781, news arrived in London of the surrender at
Yorktown. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, and a
motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated
by only one vote.On 27 February 1782, the House voted against further
war in America by 19 votes.[347]
Lord Germain was dismissed and a vote of no confidence was passed
against North. The
Rockingham Whigs

Rockingham Whigs came to power and opened
negotiations for peace. Rockingham died and was succeeded by the Earl
of Shelburne. Despite their defeat, the British still had 30,000
troops garrisoned in New York, Charleston, and Savannah.[348] Henry
Clinton was recalled and was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under
orders to suspend offensive operations.[349]
Final years of the war (1781–1783)
Main articles: Anglo-French War (1778-1783),
Spain

Spain in the American
Revolutionary War, Second Anglo-Mysore War, and Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Europe
The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 13, 1782,
by John Singleton Copley
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved
quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the
British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up
in foreign ports,[350] though political turmoil within the
Republic[351] and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep
conflict to a minimum.[352] The majority of the Dutch public favored a
military alliance with France against Britain; however, the Dutch
Stadtholder

Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early
peace.[353] To restore diminishing trade[354] a Dutch squadron under
Johan Zoutman
_-_Johan_Arnold_Zoutman.jpg/440px-Cornelis_van_Cuylenburg_(II)_-_Johan_Arnold_Zoutman.jpg)
Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel.
Zoutman's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged
Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was
tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again
during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.[355]
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize
British privateering failed.[356] Frustrated in their attempts to
capture Gibraltar, a Franco-Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc
de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St.
Philip's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5
February 1782,[357] securing a primary war goal for the Spanish.[358]
At Gibraltar, a major Franco-Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was
repulsed with heavy casualties.[359] On 20 October 1782, following a
successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe
successfully refused battle to the Franco-Spanish fleet under Luis de
Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea.[360][361] On 7 February
1783, after 1,322[362] days of siege, the Franco-Spanish army
withdrew, decisively defeated.[363][364]
Americas
Spanish troops led by
Bernardo de Gálvez

Bernardo de Gálvez in combat at Pensacola. Oil
on canvas, Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau, 2015.
In the West Indies, on 29–30 April 1781, a
Royal Navy

Royal Navy squadron under
Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de
Grasse,[365] who continued seizing British territories:
Tobago

Tobago fell on
2 June;[366] Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782;[367] St. Kitts
and Nevis on 12 February,[368] despite a British naval victory on 25
January;[369] and Montserrat on 22 February.[370] In 1782, the primary
strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of
Jamaica,[371] whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British
than the
Thirteen Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Thirteen Colonies combined.[372][373] On 7 April 1782, de
Grasse departed
Martinique

Martinique to rendezvous with Franco-Spanish troops at
Saint Domingue

Saint Domingue and invade
Jamaica

Jamaica from the north.[374] The British
under Hood and George Rodney pursued[375] and decisively defeated[376]
the French off
Dominica

Dominica between 9–12 April. The Franco-Spanish plan
to conquer
Jamaica

Jamaica was in ruins,[377] and the balance of naval power
in the
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.[378]
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez,
an attempt to capture
Pensacola

Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane.
Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at
Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile.[379] Campbell's expeditionary
force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781.[380] After
re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for
Pensacola

Pensacola on 13
February.[381] Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin
until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the
bay.[382] After a 45-day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the
garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida.[383] In May, Spanish
troops captured the Bahamas,[384] although the British bloodlessly
recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.[385]
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to
dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras.[386] Gálvez
captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black
River.[387] Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes,[388]
Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward
Despard to re-take Black River,[389] which he did on 22 August.[390]
However, with peace talks opening, and Franco-Spanish resources
committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations
took place.[390]
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several
Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781.[391] Sint
Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British
forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island's
wealth.[392]
India
Following Dutch entry into the conflict,
East India Company
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_(1801).svg.png)
East India Company troops
under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of
Negapatam

Negapatam after a
three-week siege on 11 October 1781.[393] Soon after, British Admiral
Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11
January 1782.[394]
The British (right) and the French (left), with Admiral Suffren's
flagship Cléopâtre on the far left, exchange fire at Cuddalore, by
Auguste Jugelet, 1836.
In March 1781, French Admiral
Bailli de Suffren

Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to
India

India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast
in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes,
winning a narrow tactical victory.[395] After landing troops at Porto
Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren's fleet clashed with Hughes again
Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes' fleet
came off worse,[396] and he withdrew to the British-held port of
Trincomalee.
Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture
Negapatam

Negapatam to
establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to
Suffren. Suffren's fleet clashed with Hughes again off
Negapatam

Negapatam on 6
July.[397] Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and
the British remained in control of Negapatam.[398][399] Intending to
find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee
on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.[400]
Meanwhile, Ali's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India
Company regrouped.[401] Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a
counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781,[402]
Pollilur on 27 August,[403] and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling
the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic.[404][405] On 18 February 1782,
Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire
1,800-strong force prisoner.[406] The war had, by this point, reached
an uneasy stalemate.[407] On 7 December 1782,
Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali died,[408] and
the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.[409]
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20
May 1783.[410] Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James
Stuart besieged the French-held port of
Cuddalore
.jpg/500px-Padaleeswarar_(1).jpg)
Cuddalore on 9 June 1783.[411]
On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized
when Suffren defeated Hughes' fleet off Cuddalore,[412] and though
narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British
holdings in India.[413] On 25 June, the Franco-Mysorean defenders made
repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On
30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent
powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned
the siege.[414] Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to
Sultan on 30 January 1784.[415] Little fighting took place thereafter,
and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.[406]
Peace of Paris
Main articles:
Peace of Paris (1783)

Peace of Paris (1783) and Treaty of Paris (1783)
Benjamin West's famous painting of the American delegations at the
Treaty of Paris. The British delegation refused to pose, and the
painting was never completed.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in
Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities.
While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in
America were restricted from launching further offensives.[349] Prime
Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American
independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware
that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent
to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He
preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire,
though a similar offer had been rejected by the
Americans

Americans in
1778.[416] Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The
Americans

Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as
spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted
American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782,
the Dutch formally recognized the
United States

United States as a sovereign power,
enhancing American leverage at the negotiations.
Spain

Spain initially
impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until
Gibraltar

Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that
American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians;
Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River,
below which an
Indian barrier state

Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish
control. The
United States

United States fiercely opposed the proposal.[417]
Washington enters New York in triumph following the British evacuation
of America.
The
Americans

Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable
terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with
Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of
America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to
cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and
south of Quebec,[418] while also allowing American fishermen access to
the rich Newfoundland fishery.[419] Shelburne was hoping to facilitate
the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that
Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As
Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it".[420]
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American
Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However,
the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and
the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian
War.[421] Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in
the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.[422][423]
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch
Republic.[424]
Gibraltar

Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace
talks;
Spain

Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida,
Menorca, and the Bahamas[425] in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which
Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East
Florida, West Florida, and
Menorca

Menorca if
Spain

Spain would relinquish the claim
on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted.[426] However, in
the long-term, the new territorial gains were of little value to
Spain.[427] France's only net gains were the island of
Tobago

Tobago in the
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean and
Senegal

Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other
colonial conquests to British sovereignty.[428] Britain returned Dutch
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade
rights in the Dutch East Indies[429][430] and control of the Indian
port of Negapatnam.[431]
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782,
while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the
Netherlands continued until September 1783. The
United States

United States Congress
of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784.
Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties
involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British
ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were
exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784.[432] The war formally concluded on
September 3, 1783.[433]
The last British troops departed
New York City

New York City on November 25, 1783,
marking the end of British rule in the new United States.[434]
Aftermath
Casualties and losses
Americans

Americans and allies
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As
was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more
lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke
out throughout North America, killing 40 people in
Boston

Boston alone.
Historian
Joseph Ellis
_(cropped).jpg)
Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his
troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important
decisions.[435]
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active
military service.[30] Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in
battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the
latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the
prison ships in New York Harbor.[31] If the upper limit of 70,000 is
accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the
conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War.[11]
Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating
the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at
least 10,000 died in 1776 alone.[11] The number of Patriots seriously
wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to
25,000.[436]
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the
conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American
theaters of war.[32]
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale
of their conflict with Britain.[33]
British and allies
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the
British Armed Forces.[34] A table from 1781 puts total British Army
deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046
in North America (1775–1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies
(1778–1780).[35] In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed
list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war,
encompassing Europe, the
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean and the East Indies.[437]
Extrapolations based upon this list puts
British Army

British Army losses in the
area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds.[11] Approximately
7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters;
of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.[11]
Around 171,000 sailors served in the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy during the war;
approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around
1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from
disease (1776–1780).[37] The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a
disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.[438] It was not until 1795
that scurvy was eradicated from the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy after the Admiralty
declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard
daily rations of sailors.[439] Around 42,000 sailors deserted during
the war.[440] The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an
estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the
war;[441] of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers
alone.[442]
Financial debts
Main article: Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was
flourishing,[443] and the free white population enjoyed the highest
standard of living in the world.[444] The
Royal Navy

Royal Navy enforced a naval
blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however,
this proved unsuccessful; 90% of the population worked in farming, not
in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient
enough to withstand the blockade.[445]
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to
efficiently finance the war effort.[446] As the circulation of hard
currency declined, the
Americans

Americans had to rely on loans from American
merchants and bankers, France,
Spain

Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the
young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this
by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise
revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the
paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a
popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a
continental".[447]
By 1791, the
United States

United States had accumulated a national debt of
approximately $75.5 million.[448] The
United States

United States finally solved its
debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the
Treasury
Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national
government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a
national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues
that paid off the foreign debts.[449]
Britain spent around £80 million and ended with a national debt of
£250 million, (£27.1 billion in today's money), generating a
yearly interest of £9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that
which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years' War.[450] Due
to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average
Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.[451]
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the
Americans,[452] accumulating a national debt of 3.315.1 billion livres
by 1783 on war costs.[453] Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient
taxation system,[454] the French tax system was highly unstable,
eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786.[455] The debts
contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the
French Revolution

French Revolution at the end of the century.[456] The debt continued
to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had
skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.[457]
Spain

Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from
454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779.[458] Spain
more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially
due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies;
production increased approximately 600% in Mexico, and by 250% in Peru
and Bolivia.[459]
Analysis of combatants
Great Britain
See also:
British Army

British Army during the American Revolutionary War, Royal
Navy, Hessian (soldier), and Loyalist (American Revolution)
British redcoats at the
Battle of Bunker Hill

Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately
12.6 million,[460] while the
Thirteen Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Thirteen Colonies held a population of
some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves.[461] Theoretically,
Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the
procurement of a large army.
Armed Forces
Recruitment
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised
45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry.
The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men,
stationed in North America.[462] Standing armies had played a key role
in the purge of the
Long Parliament
.svg/300px-Coat_of_Arms_of_England_(1603-1649).svg.png)
Long Parliament in 1648,[463] the maintenance of a
military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell,[464] and the overthrow of
James II,[465] and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small
in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King.[124][466] Despite
this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were
regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New
and
Old World

Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran
in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a
stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier".[467]
Press gang at work, British caricature of 1780
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient
manpower,[468] and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had
set.[469] The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious
issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8d. per
day,[470] the same pay as for a
New Model Army

New Model Army infantryman, 130 years
earlier.[471] The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the
rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits,[472] as
service was nominally for life.[473]
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £1.10s for
every recruit.[474] As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate
for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal
penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their
units.[475] After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the
bounty to £3,[476] and increased it again the following year, to
£3.3s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17–45 to 16–50
years of age.[477]
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang", was a
favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public,
leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular
service.[478] Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the
chagrin of the militia commanders.[479] Competition between naval and
army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments,
frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure
recruits for their unit.[480] Men would maim themselves to avoid the
press gangs,[481] while many deserted at the first opportunity.[482]
Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers
of such men were deployed to garrisons such as
Gibraltar

Gibraltar or the West
Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully
deserting.[483]
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally,[21]
48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas.[20] Of the
171,000 sailors[25] who served in the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy throughout the
conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same
proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the
conflict.[38] At its height, the Navy had 94 ships-of-the-line,[484]
104 frigates[485] and 37 sloops[486] in service.
Loyalists and Hessians
Hessian soldiers of the Leibregiment
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries
from Russia,[487] and the use of the
Scots Brigade

Scots Brigade from the Dutch
Republic,[488] such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed
to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums
of money, in exchange for mercenary troops.[125] In total, 29,875
troops were hired for British service from six German states;
Brunswick (5,723), Hesse-Kassel (16,992), Hesse-Hannau (2,422),
Ansbach-Bayreuth

Ansbach-Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck-Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt-Zerbst
(1,160).[28] King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a
Prince-elector

Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament
to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war.
Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease
agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.[489]
Without any major allies,[225] the manpower shortage became critical
when France and
Spain

Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of
military resources from the Americas.[228][229] Recruiting adequate
numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high
Patriot activity.[490] To bolster numbers, the British promised
freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them.[491]
Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the
war,[26] and provided some of the best troops in the British
service;[492] the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and
200 infantry[493] commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome
reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.[494][495][496]
Leadership
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military
leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief of North
America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too
lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was
appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct
command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the
war.[497] Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command,
stating; "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause". The Earl of
Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to
America, while William Howe and
John Burgoyne

John Burgoyne were opposed to military
solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were
unwilling participants, and were only following orders.[498]
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army,
officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the
ranks.[499] Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it,
the practise was common in the Army.[500] Values of commissions
varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige,
for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest
prices.[501] The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to
high-ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for [their]
consumption".[502] Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military
education, or practical experience, often found their way into
positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a
regiment.[503] Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since
1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young
boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from
their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within
regiments.[504]
Logistics
Grenadier of the
40th Regiment of Foot

40th Regiment of Foot in 1767, armed with a Brown
Bess musket
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at
best, and the
British Army

British Army was no exception. No logistical corps
existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories
such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently
requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire.[505]
No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for
surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry
examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to
surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the
army.[506] Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were
regarded as social inferiors to other officers.[507]
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular
infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the
outfit was especially ill-suited to comfort and agile movement.[508]
During the
Battle of Monmouth

Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature
exceeded 100°F (37.8°C) and is said to have claimed more lives
through heat stroke than through actual combat.[509] The
standard-issue firearm of the
British Army

British Army was the Land Pattern
Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured
shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet
made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down
the charge into the barrel.[510] British troops had a tendency to fire
impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John
Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne
instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which
was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.[511]
Soldiers of the Black Watch armed with
Brown Bess

Brown Bess muskets, c. 1790.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the
end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army
until the
Baker Rifle

Baker Rifle in 1801.[512] Flintlocks were heavily dependent
on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash
pan,[513] while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the
powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints
used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could
only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while
American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression
among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog".[514]
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as
the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from
Britain.[515] The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army
from living off the land.[516] Other factors also impeded this option;
the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were
largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was
poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so
limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being
ambushed.[517] After France entered the war, the threat of the French
navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America.
Food supplies were frequently in bad condition. The climate was also
against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where
the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil.[518]
Life at sea was little better.
Sailors

Sailors and passengers were issued a
daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer.[519] The
hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned
the nicknames "molar breakers" and "worm castles",[520] and it
sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often
spoiled on long voyages.[521] The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables
gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea.[438]
Discipline
Discipline was harsh in the armed forces, and the lash was used to
punish even trivial offences—and not used sparingly.[522] For
instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during
the Saratoga campaign,[523] while another received 800 lashes for
striking a superior officer.[524] Flogging was a common punishment in
the
Royal Navy

Royal Navy and came to be associated with the stereotypical
hardiness of sailors.[525]
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self-discipline
pervaded all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers had an intense
passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often
wager their own uniforms.[526] Many drank heavily, and this was not
exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many
"crapulous mornings" while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne
drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga
campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace
with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens
of command.[527] During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers
deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the
houses where they had been quartered.[528] Some reports indicated that
British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of
non-combatants.[529] This is contrasted diaries of Hessian soldiers,
who recorded their disapproval of British conduct towards the
colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of
prisoners.[530]
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety among the
colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal
mercenaries.[531] British soldiers were often contemptuous in their
treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that
"the English should treat the Germans as brothers". The order only
began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a
minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the
British troops to accord them any respect.[532]
During peacetime, the Army's idleness led to it being riddled with
corruption and inefficiency, resulting in many administrative
difficulties once campaigning began.[533]
Strategic deficiencies
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the
capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the
colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning.[121][122]
The ineffective initial response of British military and civil
officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to
shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control
over every colony.[123] A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident
at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British
leadership to respond following the sighting of the
Americans

Americans on the
Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce
their defenses.[534] Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that
would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss,[535] the British
decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the
British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after
repeated frontal assaults.[536] The British leadership had
nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two
regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.[537][538]
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed
outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of
Britain was nothing short of a miracle.[539] Ellis, however, considers
that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a
British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the
British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in
1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe
underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes
that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would
never come again".[540] Conversely, the
United States

United States Army's official
textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh
troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of
possibility.[541]
William Howe
A 1777 mezzotint of Sir William Howe, British Commander-in-Chief from
1775–1778
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William
Howe's command, the British squandered several opportunities to
achieve a decisive victory over the Americans.[541][540] Throughout
the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic
errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete
victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement
of Washington,[542] and actively restrained his subordinates from
mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army.[142] At
White Plains, he refused to engage Washington's vulnerable army, and
instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British
no strategic advantage.[147][148] After securing control of New York,
Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which
Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his
command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington's
retreating army.[151][543][153] Despite the bleak outlook for the
revolutionary cause[158] and the surge of Loyalist activity in the
wake of Washington's defeats,[136] Howe made no attempt to mount an
attack upon Washington while the
Americans

Americans settled down into winter
quarters, much to their surprise.[174]
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the
choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture
Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter,
determining that Washington was of a greater threat. When Howe
launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time-consuming route
through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of
overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The
move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of
him. The decision so angered Parliament, that Howe was accused by
Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.[185]
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy
the defeated
Americans

Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of
Brandywine,[186][187] and again after the Battle of Germantown.[190]
At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit
the vulnerable American rear,[544] and then inexplicably ordered a
retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both
sides.[191] While the
Americans

Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe
made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have
ended the war.[194][195][196] Following the conclusion of the
campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry
Clinton on May 24, 1778.[198]
Contrary to Howe's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic
factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been
dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the
grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill.[545][546] During
the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of
the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to
mount effective campaigns.[547] Howe's tardiness in launching the New
York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously
pursue Washington's beaten army, have both been attributed to the
paucity of available food supplies.[548][549]
During the winter of 1776–1777, Howe split his army into scattered
cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces
to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they
could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed
the
Americans

Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the
concurrent Battle of Princeton.[550] While a major strategic error to
divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food
supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take
such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective
foraging parties would not interfere with each other's efforts.[551]
Howe's difficulties during the
Philadelphia campaign

Philadelphia campaign were also greatly
exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available
provisions.[552]
Clinton and Cornwallis
General Charles Cornwallis, who led British forces in the southern
campaign.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising
in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible.
After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to
invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had
been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the
British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at
the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely
criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without
adequate mutual support.[315] Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to
proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large
Loyalist uprising which never materialized.[553] As a result,
subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not
replace, as at the
Battle of Guilford

Battle of Guilford Courthouse,[317] and the
Americans

Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of
attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest.
The
Americans

Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781,
effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the
progress they had made in the previous year.[554][324]
In a last-ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis
resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American's supply
base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis' superior, strongly
opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take
place between Washington in the North.[325] London had approved
Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the
decision-making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a
muddled strategic direction.[326] Cornwallis then decided to invade
Virginia

Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions.[555] Clinton,
however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for
British campaigning that year,[556] owing to his fractious
relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval
counterpart.[329]
As the Franco-American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made
no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be
erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers.[339]
Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely
abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied
by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat.[557] These
factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis' entire
army, and the end of major operations in North America.[558]
Like Howe before him, Clinton's efforts to campaign suffered from
chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining
of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from
Ireland.[559] That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly,
that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were
going to be properly fed.[560] Clinton was largely inactive in the
North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity
was partially due to the shortage of food.[561] By 1780, the situation
had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to
Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue" if
matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to
Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an
ounce" of that year's allotted stores from Britain.[562]
Campaign issues
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major
problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months
to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by
the time that they arrived.[563] The colonies had never been formally
united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of
ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital
city often signalled the end of a conflict,[564] yet the war continued
unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York,
Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston.[565]
Britain's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the
power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal
settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of
colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American
population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy
proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade's effects.[445]
Black Loyalist

Black Loyalist soldiers fought alongside British regulars in the 1781
Battle of Jersey, from The Death of Major Peirson
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using
the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in
Scotland and Ireland.[566] For example, British troops looted and
pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779,
enraging both Patriots and Loyalists.[567] Neutral colonists were
often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke
out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages
of the war.[568] Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when
Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying
property or tarring and feathering.[569][570] The vastness of the
American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the
British could never simultaneously defeat the
Americans

Americans and occupy
captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as
"like trying to conquer a map".[571]
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London[572] and were
successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the
colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British
planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings
of Loyalists. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only
15–20% of the population (vs. 40-45% Patriots)[573] and that they
continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as
1780.[574] The British discovered that any significant level of
organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of
British regulars,[575] which presented them with a major dilemma. The
manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both
protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances.[576] The
vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the
South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot
neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain,
and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled
Loyalist military capability in the South.[313]
Upon the entry of France and
Spain

Spain into the conflict, the British were
forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they
sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the
British mainland.[228][229] As a result, King George III abandoned any
hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to
contend with.[577] The small size of Britain's army left them unable
to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had
done in the Seven Years' War, leaving them at a critical
disadvantage.[226] The British were compelled to disperse troops from
the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were
unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to
defeat.[231] In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the
French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica,[578] whose sugar
exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the
Thirteen Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Thirteen Colonies combined.[372]
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most
populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were
negligible in the long-term, and she became a global superpower just
32 years after the end of the conflict.[579]
Patriots
Main articles:
Continental Army

Continental Army and Minutemen
1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford
The
Americans

Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to
the British. They had no national government, no national army or
navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no
functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress
tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees,
which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand
new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the
colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now
shut down by the British blockade and the
Americans

Americans had to rely on
slow overland travel.
However, the
Americans

Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run
outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The
Americans

Americans had a
large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local
production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly
shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory
far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home
ports. Most of the
Americans

Americans lived on farms distant from the
seaports—the British could capture any port but that did not give
them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had
a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state
governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of
communications. They had a long-established system of local militia,
previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with
companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local
militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created
by Congress.[580]
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000
fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to
do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The
British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their
fighting.[12]
At the onset of the war, the
Americans

Americans had no major international
allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of
Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown[581] proved
decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European
nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying
the
Americans

Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them
militarily, moving the war to a global stage.[582]
The new
Continental Army

Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an
effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and
sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in
part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington,
Horatio Gates, Charles Lee,
Richard Montgomery

Richard Montgomery and
Francis Marion

Francis Marion all
had military experience with the
British Army

British Army during the French and
Indian War. The
Americans

Americans solved their training dilemma during their
stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly
drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a
veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental
Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and
strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual.[583] When the
Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match
the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic
action at the Battle of Monmouth.[584]
Population density in the
American Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
American Colonies in 1775
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or
navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly
armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their
units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant
to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended
operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with
more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help
the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the
battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston.
Both sides used partisan warfare but the
Americans

Americans effectively
suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the
area.[490]
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress
established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George
Washington as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental
Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his
regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the
United States

United States Military trace their
institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United
States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of
the
Continental Congress

Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The
United States

United States Navy
recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment,
the passage of the resolution of the
Continental Congress

Continental Congress at
Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy.[585] And the United
States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental
Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress
on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday
of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington's army had
20,000 men, with two-thirds enlisted in the
Continental Army

Continental Army and the
other third in the various state militias.[586] At the end of the
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution in 1783, both the
Continental Navy

Continental Navy and Continental
Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as
militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war,
but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time.
About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the
war.[587] The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they
captured 2,283 enemy ships.[442]
John Paul Jones

John Paul Jones became the first
great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the
first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.[588]
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely
attributable, on the American side, to limitations such as lack of
powder and other logistical capabilities; and, on the British side, to
the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic, as well as
the dependence on local supplies, which the Patriots tried to cut off.
The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under
17,000,[589] and may have been no more than 13,000 troops, and even
the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown
amounted to only about 19,000.[590] By comparison, Duffy notes that in
an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces
downward, in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled
(the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later,
during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars), the
largest army that
Frederick the Great

Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000
men (at Prague in 1757), and at other times he commanded between
23,000 and 50,000 men, considering the latter the most effective
number.[590]
African Americans
1780 drawing of American soldiers from the
Yorktown campaign

Yorktown campaign shows a
black infantryman from the 1st
Rhode Island

Rhode Island Regiment.
African Americans—slave and free—served on both sides during the
war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and
promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore's
Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages,
George Washington

George Washington lifted
the ban on black enlistment in the
Continental Army

Continental Army in January 1776.
Small all-black units were formed in
Rhode Island

Rhode Island and Massachusetts;
many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men
promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was
over, out of political convenience. Another all-black unit came from
Saint-Domingue

Saint-Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black
soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.[591][592]
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British
lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South
Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30% of the enslaved population) fled,
migrated or died during the disruption of the war.[593] This greatly
disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they
withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also
evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists.[594] Altogether, the
British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More
than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in
Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.[595][596]
American Indians
A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army
soldiers.
Washington and the
Comte de Rochambeau

Comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, 1781
Most American Indians east of the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River were affected by
the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to
respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the
other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as
a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians
fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the
Iroquois

Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men.[597] The powerful
Iroquois

Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict,
whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations
sided with the British. Members of the
Mohawk nation

Mohawk nation fought on both
sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The
Continental Army

Continental Army sent the
Sullivan Expedition

Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New
York to cripple the
Iroquois

Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British.
Mohawk leaders
Joseph Louis Cook

Joseph Louis Cook and
Joseph Brant
.jpg/400px-Joseph_Brant_painting_by_George_Romney_1776_(2).jpg)
Joseph Brant sided with the
Americans

Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated
the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict
when the
Cherokee

Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier
areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the
Cherokee

Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the
rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who
carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities
with Britain.[598]
Creek and
Seminole

Seminole allies of Britain fought against
Americans

Americans in
Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed
American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors
also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted
Britain during the Siege of Savannah.[599] Many Indians were involved
in the fighting between Britain and
Spain

Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the
Mississippi River—mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks,
Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of
Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.[600]
Race and class
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were
captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or
wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some
12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery.
Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to
10,000 slaves gained freedom.[601] About 4000 freed slaves went to
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.[602][603]
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the
Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the
farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that
living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for
wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism
conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man's birth
order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went
to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person's family
responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede
mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home
regardless of the sergeant's orders. Some relatives might be
Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians
conclude the Revolution's effect on patriarchy and inheritance
patterns favored egalitarianism.[604]
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia's mobilization
of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes,
which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause.
The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave-owning
planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless
indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments,
taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the
tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less
effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and
large-scale desertion, so that Virginia's contributions came at
embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in
1781,
Virginia

Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George
Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.[605]
See also
American Revolutionary War

American Revolutionary War portal
United States

United States Army portal
Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War
Bibliography of George Washington
Commemoration of the American Revolution
Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War
British Army

British Army during the American War of Independence
First Treaty of San Ildefonso
First League of Armed Neutrality
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
George Washington

George Washington in the American Revolution
Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
List of
American Revolutionary War

American Revolutionary War battles
List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution
List of plays and films about the American Revolution
List of revolutions and rebellions
Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War
Treaty of El Pardo (1778)
Notes
^ This article primarily refers to the inhabitants of the thirteen
colonies who supported the
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution as "Americans", with
occasional references to "Patriots" or "Revolutionaries". Colonists
who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are referred to
as "Loyalists" or "Tories". The geographical area of the thirteen
colonies is often referred to simply as "America".
References
^ (from 1777)
^ (from 1778)
^ The term "French Empire" colloquially refers to the empire under
Napoleon, but it is used here for brevity to refer to France proper
and to the colonial empire that the
Kingdom of France

Kingdom of France ruled
^ (from 1779)
^ (1780–83)
^ (1780–84)
^ (until 1779)
^ Hanover supplied troops per
Personal union

Personal union treaty, not as
mercenaries
^ Lowell, Edward J (1884), "The Hessians and the other German
Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War", Harper and
Brothers Publishers, New York, Chapter II. Quote: "Five battalions of
the Hanoverian subjects of George III were despatched to
Gibraltar

Gibraltar and
Menorca"
^ (from 1779)
^ a b c d e f g h Duncan, Louis C. MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION (1931).
^ a b Michael Lanning (2009).
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution 100: The Battles,
People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by
Their Significance. Sourcebooks. pp. 195–96.
ISBN 9781402241703.
^ a b Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. A Companion to the American
Revolution (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), p. 328.
^ Paullin, Charles Oscar (1906). The navy of the American Revolution:
its administration, its policy and its achievements. The Burrows
Brothers Co.
^ "Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War".
Usmm.org. Retrieved May 25, 2017.
^ Howarth 1991, p. 16
^ Montero, Francisco Maria (1860), Historia de
Gibraltar

Gibraltar y de su campo
(in Spanish), Imprenta de la Revista Médica, p. 356
^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 79.
^ a b Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution
(Yale University Press, 1985), p. 110.
^ a b "Red Coats Facts – British Soldiers in the American
Revolution". totallyhistory.com.
^ a b "The
British Army

British Army 1775–1783" (PDF). orbat. Archived from the
original (PDF) on September 27, 2013. Retrieved September 23,
2013.
^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 63: "Of 7,500 men in the
Gibraltar

Gibraltar garrison in September (including 400 in hospital), some
3,430 were always on duty"
^ Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792
(Seaforth Publishing, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-700-6
^ Winfield, Rif,
British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714–1792:
Design, Construction, Careers and Fates (Seaforth Publishing, 2007)
^ a b Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).
^ a b Savas and Dameron (2006), p. xli
^ Knesebeck, Ernst von dem (1845), "Geschichte de churhannoverschen
Truppen in Gibraltar,
Menorca

Menorca und Ostindien", Published by Im Verlage
der Helwingschen Hof-Buchhandlung. Note: The strength of a Hanoverian
battalion is listed as 473 men
^ a b Lowell, Edward J (1884), "The Hessians and the other German
Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War", Harper and
Brothers Publishers, New York, Chapter II
^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.
^ a b Howard H. Peckham, ed., The Toll of Independence: Engagements
and Battle Casualties of the
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1974).
^ a b Burrows, Edwin G. (Fall 2008). "Patriots or Terrorists".
American Heritage. 58 (5). Archived from the original on March 23,
2013. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
^ a b Dawson, Warrington. "The 2112 Frenchmen who died in the United
States from 1777 to 1783 while fighting for the American
Independence". Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route. Journal de
la societe des Americanistes. Archived from the original on June 5,
2017. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
^ a b c "Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war".
Necrometrics.
^ a b Annual Register, 1783 (1785), pp. 199–200.
^ a b Parliamentary Register (1781), pp. 263–65.
^ "Eighteenth Century Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. Retrieved
January 7, 2016.
^ a b Parliamentary Register (1781), p. 269.
^ a b Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen)
^ Burrows, Edwin. "Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American
Prisoners During the Revolutionary War." Basic Books. New York, 2008.
Page 203.
^ Modern British writers generally favor "American War of
Independence", rather than "American Rebellion" or "War of American
Independence". "National Curriculum England". Retrieved April 21,
2016.
^ The colony of Georgia joined later.
^ Brooks, Richard (editor). Atlas of World Military History.
HarperCollins, 2000, p. 101 "Washington's success in keeping the army
together deprived the British of victory, but French intervention won
the war."
^ Gladney, Henry M. (2014). No Taxation without Representation: 1768
Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance (PDF). Archived from the original
(PDF) on May 13, 2015.
^ Liberty and Property: Political Ideology in Eighteenth-century
Britain – H. T. Dickinson – Google Books. Books.google.com. 1977.
p. 218. ISBN 9780416729306. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
^ Charles Howard McIlwain (1938). The American Revolution: A
Constitutional Interpretation. p. 51.
ISBN 9781584775683.
^ Paul Boyer; et al. (2014). The Enduring Vision: A History of the
American People. Cengage Learning. p. 142.
ISBN 9781285193397.
^ Knollenberg, Growth, 48; Thomas, Duties Crisis, 76
^ Young, Shoemaker, 183–85.
^ Knollenberg, Growth, 69
^ "What was the
Boston

Boston Massacre?".
Boston Massacre

Boston Massacre Society.
^ "
Boston

Boston Tea Party". History.com.
^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/mass_gov_act.asp
^ Ian R. Christie and Benjamin W. Labaree, Empire or Independence,
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^ Ammerman, David (1974). In the Common Cause: American Response to
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^ Ammerman points out that the act only permitted soldiers to be
quartered in unoccupied buildings—although they were still private
property. (Ammerman, In the Common Cause, 10)
^ Ammerman, In the Common Cause, 15.
^ Gary B. Nash; Carter Smith (2007). Atlas Of American History.
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^ Peter Knight (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An
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^ Georgia did not attend
^ Ferling, John. (2003). A Leap in the Dark. Oxford University Press.
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^ Kindig, Thomas E. (1995). "Galloway's Plan for the Union of Great
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attractive to most of the members, as it proposed a popularly elected
Grand Council which would represent the interests of the colonies as a
whole, and would be a continental equivalent to the English
Parliament. After a sincere debate, it was rejected by a six to five
vote on October 22, 1774. It may have been the arrival of the Suffolk
County (Boston) resolutions that killed it.
^ a b Kramnick, Isaac (ed);
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^ "Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all
free government, is a right in the people to participate in their
legislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented,
and from their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be
represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and
exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial
legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be
preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only
to the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as has been
heretofore used and accustomed: But, from the necessity of the case,
and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries, we cheerfully
consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, as
are bonfide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce,
for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole
empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its
respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal or
external, for raising a revenue on the subjects, in America, without
their consent." quoted from the Declarations and Resolves of the First
Continental Congress

Continental Congress October 14, 1774.
^ Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political
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^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 47–48
^ Alan Axelrod, The Real History of the American Revolution: A New
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^ Fischer, p. 76
^ Fischer, p. 85
^ Chidsey, p. 6. This is the total size of Smith's force.
^ Ketchum, pp. 18,54
^ Ketchum, pp. 2–9
^ Ketchum pp. 110–111
^ Adams, Charles Francis, "The Battle of Bunker Hill", in American
Historical Review (1895–1896), pp. 401–13.
^ Higginbotham (1983), pp. 75–77.
^ Ketchum, p. 183, 198–209
^ Hugh F. Rankin, ed. (1987). Rebels and Redcoats: The American
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text: authors list (link)
^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the
Eighteenth CentuIry (1882), pp. 449–50.
^ McCullough, p.53
^ Frothingham, pp. 100–101
^ John R. Alden (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo
Press. pp. 188–90. ISBN 9780306803666.
^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 293
^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 91
^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 93
^ Quebec was officially ceded in 1763
^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 242
^ Gabriel, Michael P. (2002). Major General Richard Montgomery: The
Making of an American Hero. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.
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^ Mark R. Anderson, The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America's
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^ Alden, The
American Revolution
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American Revolution (1954) p. 206
^ Willard Sterne Randall, "
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^ Davies, Blodwen (1951). Quebec: Portrait of a Province. Greenberg.
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^ Lanctot (1967), pp. 141–146
^ Thomas A. Desjardin, Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's
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^ Stanley, pp. 127–128
^ Watson (1960), p. 203.
^ Arthur S. Lefkowitz, Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American
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^ Selby and Higginbotham, p. 2
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^ Scribner, Robert L. (1983). Revolutionary Virginia, the Road to
Independence. University of
Virginia

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^ Russell, p. 73
^ McCrady, p. 89
^ Landrum, John Belton O'Neall (1897). Colonial and Revolutionary
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South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-573-3.
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^ Hibbert, C: Rebels and Redcoats, p.106
^ Kepner, F, "A British View of the Siege of Charleston, 1776", The
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link
^ Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats, p.154, 158
^ Field, Edward (1898). Esek Hopkins, commander-in-chief of the
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^ Riley, pp. 101–102
^ Field, pp. 117–118
^ Field, pp. 120–125
^ "DECLARATION OF TAKING UP ARMS: RESOLUTIONS OF THE SECOND
CONTINENTAL CONGRESS". Constitution Society. Retrieved
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^ Ketchum, p.211
^ Maier, American Scripture, 25. The text of the 1775 king's speech is
online, published by the
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^ Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 168; Ferling, Leap in the Dark,
123–24.
^ Maier, American Scripture, 25
^ Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, The Men who Lost America: British
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^ Lecky. A History of England. pp. 162–65.
^ Vincent Morley (2002). Irish Opinion and the American Revolution,
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^ a b Ketchum, pp. 208–209
^ a b Frothingham (1903), p. 298
^ a b John C. Miller (1959). Origins of the American Revolution.
Stanford UP. pp. 410–12.
^ a b Scheer, p. 64
^ a b http://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/hessiansotherge00lowe
^ David Smith (2012). New York 1776: The Continentals' First Battle.
Osprey Publishing. pp. 21–23.
^ Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 270; Maier, American
Scripture, 31–32.
^ Maier, American Scripture, 33–34
^ Boyd, Evolution, 19
^ Maier, American Scripture, 160–61
^ Fischer (2004), p. 29.
^ Maier, American Scripture, 156–57
^ Encyclopedia of the
American Revolution
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American Revolution Mark M. Botner III, (1974)
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^ Liberty's Exiles; American Loyalists & the Revolutionary World.
Maya Jasanoff (2011)
^ The American Revolution; Colin Bonwick (1991) P.152
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^ Land confiscation Records of north Carolina, Vol.1 (1779–1800)
Stewart Dunaway, p. 9
^ Fischer, pp. 76–78
^ Fischer, pp. 89, 381
^ Ketchum (1973), p. 104
^ a b Adams, Charles Francis, "Battle of Long Island", in American
Historical Review (1895–1896), p. 657.
^ Fischer, pp. 88–102
^ Ketchum (1973), p. 117
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^ Fischer, pp. 102–107
^ a b Fischer (2004), pp. 102–11.
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^ Fischer p. 254. Casualty numbers vary slightly with the Hessian
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captured (including the wounded).
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^ Duncan, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Volume 2, p. 15
^ Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, p. 148
^ "
Battle of Monmouth

Battle of Monmouth Courthouse". Robinson Library. Self-published.
Retrieved 20 June 2017.
^ Lloyd, Ernest Marsh (1908), Review of the History of Infantry, p.
155
^ Trevelyan, Volume III, p. 6; Volume IV, p. 158
^ Fortescue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 83.
^ Sawyer, Charles Winthrop (1910), "Firearms in American History", p.
99
^ Trevelyan, Volume IV, pp. 224, 34
^ Minute
Book

Book of a Board of General Officers of the
British Army

British Army in
New York, 1781. New York Historical Society Collections, 1916, p. 81.
^ Black (2001), p. 14
^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North, Volume II, p. 7, 52
^ Merril D. Smith (2015). The World of the American Revolution: A
Daily Life Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 374.
^ "Ships Biscuits –
Royal Navy

Royal Navy hardtack".
Royal Navy

Royal Navy Museum.
Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved
2010-01-14.
^ "19th
United States

United States Infantry". 19thusregulars.com. Archived from the
original on July 15, 2012. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
^ Lowell, Edward J and Andrews, Raymond J (June 15, 1997) "The
Hessians in the Revolutionary War", Corner House Pub,
ISBN 978-0879281168, p. 56
^ Howe, (Sir) William, Orderly Book, edited by B. F. Stevens (London,
1890), pp. 263, 288
^ Burgoyne, John, Orderly Book, edited by E. B. O'Callaghan (Albany,
1860), p. 74.
^ Howe, Orderly Book, pp 263, 288
^ "Life at sea in the age of sail". National Maritime Museum.
^ Lamb, Memoir, p. 74
^ Riedesel, Mrs. General, Letters and Journals, translated from the
original German by W. L. Stone (Albany, 1867) p. 125
^ Stedman, Charles, History of the American War (London, 1794), Volume
I, p. 309
^ Fortescue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 35
^ Steven Schwamenfeld. "The Foundation of British Strength: National
Identity and the Common British Soldier." Ph.D. diss., Florida State
University 2007, p. 123-124
^ Schwamenfeld (2007), p.123-124
^ Schwamenfeld (2007), p. 123
^ Clayton, Anthony (2007). The British Officer: Leading the Army from
1660 to the Present. Routledge. ISBN 178159287X, p. 65
^ French, pp. 263–265
^ Frothingham, p. 155
^ Frothingham pp. 191, 194
^ Frothingham, p. 156
^ Ferling, 2015, p. 127-129
^ John E. Ferling, Almost A Miracle: The American Victory in the War
of Independence (2009), pp. 562–77.
^ a b Joseph J. Ellis (2013). Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of
American Independence. Random House. ISBN 0307701220.
^ a b Richard W. Stewart, ed., American Military History Volume 1 The
United States

United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation, 1775–1917" (2005) ch
4 "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783" (2005), p. 103.
^ Adams, Charles Francis, "Battle of Long Island", in American
Historical Review (1895–1896), pp. 668–669.
^
David McCullough
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David McCullough (2006). 1776. p. 122.
^ Cadwalader, Richard McCall (1901). Observance of the One Hundred and
Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the
British Army. Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh,
November 2, 1777:. pp. 20–28. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
^ Frothingham pp. 152–153
^ Jackson, Kenneth T; Dunbar, David S (2005). Empire City: New York
Through the Centuries. Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-10909-3, p. 20
^ Colonial Office Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office,
5:93, Howe to Dartmouth, 1st December 1775
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:93, Howe to Germain, 7 June and 7 July
1776
^ A View of the Evidence (London, 1783), p. 13
^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North, Volume II, p. 57
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:93, Howe to Germain, 30 Nov 1776
^ Stedman, American War, Volume I, p. 287
^ Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution in the
South (2000).
^ Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University of Alabama
Press., p. 221
^ Clinton, H.; The American Rebellion. Note: This lack of notification
was one of Clinton's main arguments in his own defense in the
controversy that followed the surrender at Yorktown.
^ Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: a Reassessment.
Woodbridge, NJ: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-137-2.
OCLC 232006312. , p. 29
^ Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random
House Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-6950-2., p. 337
^ Fleming, Thomas (1970). The Perils of Peace. New York: The Dial
Press. ISBN 978-0-06-113911-6, p. 16
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:96, Clinton to Germain, 15 September 1778
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:97, Clinton to Germain, 15 December 1778
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:98, Haldimand to Clinton, 19 July and 29
August 1779
^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:100, Clinton to Germain, 31st October 1780
^ Black (2001), p. 39; Greene and Pole (1999), pp. 298, 306
^ Rossman, Vadim (2016), "Capital Cities: Varieties and Patterns of
Development and Relocation", Taylor & Francis,
ISBN 1317562852, p. 2
^ Edward E. Curtis, The Organization of the
British Army

British Army in the
American Revolution, Conclusion, (Yale U.P. 1926), [3] Retrieved 10
June 2017
^ Black (2001), p. 14.
^ Wilson, David K (2005). The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of
South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia, SC: University of
South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-573-3. OCLC 232001108. p.
112
^ Black (2001), pp. 14–16 (Harsh methods), pp. 35, 38 (slaves and
Indians), p. 16 (neutrals into revolutionaries).
^ Leonard Woods Larabee, Conservatism in Early American History (1948)
pp 164–65
^ Calhoon, Robert M. The Loyalists in Revolutionary America,
1760–1781 (1973)
^ Curtis, "The Organization of the
British Army

British Army in the American
Revolution, Conclusion
^ C. Ritcheson, "Loyalist Influence on British Policy Toward the
United States

United States After the American Revolution"; Eighteenth-Century
Studies; (1973) 7#1 p. 6. Jstor link
^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 235
^ William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1891). A History of England: In the
Eighteenth Century. p. 139.
^ Black (2001), p. 12.
^ Black (2001), p. 13–14.
^ Ferling (2007), p. 294
^ Dull, (1985) p. 244
^ Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and
Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463.
ISBN 2-7605-1588-5.
^ Pole and Greene, eds. Companion to the American Revolution, ch.
36–39.
^ Trevelyan, p. 249.
^ Ketchum (1997), pp. 405–48.
^ Philander D. Chase. "Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von"; American
National Biography Online (2000). Accessed January 29, 2015.
^ Ferling, John (2007), pp. 294–95"
^ "Establishment of the Navy, 13 October 1775". United States
Navy. Retrieved November 5, 2009.
^ Crocker (2006), p. 51.
^ "Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War".
Usmm.org. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
^ Higginbotham (1983), pp. 331–46.
^ Boatner (1974), p. 264.
^ a b Duffy, Christopher (2005). Military Experience in the Age of
Reason. London: Routledge. ISBN 0203976851. p. 13. In the
original 1987 edition, p. 17.
^ Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), pp. 64–69.
^ Leslie Alexander (2010). Encyclopedia of African American History.
ABC-CLIO. p. 356. ISBN 9781851097746.
^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and
Wang, 1994, p. 73
^ Kolchin, p.73
^ William Weir (2004). The Encyclopedia of African American Military
History. Prometheus Books. pp. 31–32.
ISBN 9781615928316.
^ Cassadra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave
Defections in the American Revolution", William and Mary Quarterly
(2005) 62#2 pp: 243–264. in JSTOR
^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.
^ John Finger, Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition
(Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 43–64.
^ Ward, Harry M. (1999). The war for independence and the
transformation of American society. Psychology Press. p. 198.
ISBN 978-1-85728-656-4. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
^ O'Brien, Greg (April 30, 2008). Pre-removal
Choctaw

Choctaw history:
exploring new paths. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 123–126.
ISBN 978-0-8061-3916-6. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
^ Cassandra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave
Defections in the American Revolution", William and Mary Quarterly
2005 62#2: 243–264.
^ John N. Grant, "Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia, 1776–1815."
Journal of Negro History (1973): 253–270. in JSTOR
^ James W. St G. Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a
Promised Land in
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 (1992).
^ William Baller, "Farm Families and the American Revolution," Journal
of Family History (2006) 31(1): 28–44. ISSN 0363-1990.
Fulltext: online in EBSCO.
^ Michael A. McDonnell, "Class War: Class Struggles During the
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution in Virginia", William and Mary Quarterly 2006
63(2): 305–344. ISSN 0043-5597 Fulltext: online at History
Cooperative.
Further reading
Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence,
1775–1783. 2001. Analysis from a noted British military historian.
Benn, Carl Historic Fort York, 1793–1993. Toronto: Dundurn Press
Ltd. 1993. ISBN 0-920474-79-9.
Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.
1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1. Military topics,
references many secondary sources.
Calloway, Colin G. The
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis
and Diversity in Native American Communities (Cambridge UP, 1995).
Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. The Oxford Companion to
American Military History. Oxford University Press, 1999.
ISBN 0-19-507198-0.
Conway, Stephen. The
British Isles

British Isles and the War of American
Independence (2002) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199254552.001.0001
online
Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum.
ISBN 978-1-4000-5363-6.
Curtis, Edward E. The Organization of the
British Army

British Army in the American
Revolution (Yale U.P. 1926) online
Duffy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason,
1715–1789 Routledge, 1987. ISBN 978-0-7102-1024-1.
Edler, Friedrich. The
Dutch Republic

Dutch Republic and The American Revolution.
University Press of the Pacific, 1911, reprinted 2001.
ISBN 0-89875-269-8.
Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. (2004).
ISBN 1-4000-4031-0.
David Hackett Fischer. Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517034-2.
Fletcher, Charles Robert Leslie. An Introductory History of England:
The Great European War, Volume 4. E.P. Dutton, 1909.
OCLC 12063427.
Greene, Jack P. and Pole, J.R., eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the
American Revolution. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint
1999. ISBN 1-55786-547-7. Collection of essays focused on
political and social history.
Gilbert, Alan. Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation
in the War for Independence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2012. ISBN 978-0-226-29307-3.
Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military
Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. Northeastern
University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-930350-44-8. Overview of military
topics; online in ACLS History E-book Project.
Morrissey, Brendan. Monmouth Courthouse 1778: The Last Great Battle in
the North. Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-772-7.
Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American
Revolution 1763–1776. (2004)
Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The Black Presence in the Era
of the American Revolution. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of
Massachusetts

Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87023-663-6.
Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary
War. Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4681-X.
Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775–1783. London, 1964.
Reprinted University of Nebraska Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8032-8192-7.
Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership.
McCullough, David. 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005.
Middleton, Richard, The War of American Independence, 1775–1783.
London: Pearson, 2012. ISBN 978-0-582-22942-6
Reynolds, Jr., William R. (2012). Andrew Pickens: South Carolina
Patriot in the Revolutionary War. Jefferson NC: McFarland &
Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-6694-8.
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: a Chronology. Greenwood
Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 978-0-313-32280-8.
Savas, Theodore P. and Dameron, J. David. A Guide to the Battles of
the American Revolution. New York: Savas Beatie LLC, 2006.
ISBN 1-932714-12-X.
Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American
Revolution, New York, NY: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2006
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men who Lost America: British
Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale
UP, 2014).
Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military
Struggle for American Independence. New York: Oxford University Press,
1976 (ISBN 0-19-502013-8); revised University of Michigan Press,
1990 (ISBN 0-472-06431-2). Collection of essays.
Stephenson, Orlando W. "The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776", American
Historical Review, 30#2 (1925), pp. 271–281 online free.
Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750-1804
(WW Norton & Company, 2016).
Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy: The French and the
British from the Sun King to the Present Random House, 2007.
ISBN 978-1-4000-4024-7.
Trevelyan, George Otto. George the Third and Charles Fox: the
concluding part of The American revolution Longmans, Green, 1912.
Watson, J. Steven. The Reign of George III, 1760–1815. 1960.
Standard history of British politics.
Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War. Indiana University Press,
1977. ISBN 978-0-253-28029-9.
Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom,
Britain's Quagmire: 1775–1783. New York: Free Press, 2005 (a
division of Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-7432-2687-9. An account
of the British politics on the conduct of the war.
Reference literature
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are
not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and
individuals can be found in those articles.
Billias, George Athan. George Washington's Generals and Opponents:
Their Exploits and Leadership (1994) scholarly studies of key generals
on each side.
Black, Jeremy. "Could the British Have Won the American War of
Independence?." Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research.
(Fall 1996), Vol. 74 Issue 299, pp 145–154. online video lecture,
uses Real Player
Conway, Stephen. The War of American Independence 1775–1783.
Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0-340-62520-1. 280 pages.
Lowell, Edward J. The Hessians in the Revolution Williamstown,
Massachusetts, Corner House Publishers, 1970, Reprint
Bancroft, George. History of the
United States

United States of America, from the
discovery of the American continent. (1854–78), vol. 7–10.
Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American
Revolution. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint).
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard A., eds. The
Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social,
and Military History (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online
editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
Frey, Sylvia R. The British Soldier in America: A Social History of
Military Life in the Revolutionary Period (University of Texas Press,
1981).
Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution
through British Eyes. New York: Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-02895-X.
Kwasny, Mark V. Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783. Kent, Ohio:
1996. ISBN 0-87338-546-2.
Militia

Militia warfare.
Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution,
1763–1789. Oxford University Press, 1984; revised 2005.
ISBN 0-19-516247-1. online edition
Savas, Theodore; J. David Dameron (2006). Guide to the Battles of the
American Revolution. Savas Beatie. ISBN 9781611210118.
Contains a detailed listing of American, French, British, German, and
Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles,
and what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both
sides, And all the important battles.
Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the
First British Empire, 1714–1783 (2008) 802 pp., detailed coverage of
diplomacy from London viewpoint
Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution
(1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units
Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. (2 volumes. New York:
Macmillan, 1952.) History of land battles in North America.
Wood, W. J. Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781.
ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint). Analysis of tactics
of a dozen battles, with emphasis on American military leadership.
Men-at-Arms series: short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions:
Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. General Washington's Army (1):
1775–78 (1994)
Zlatich, Marko. General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83 (1994)
Chartrand, Rene. The
French Army
.svg/450px-Logo_of_the_French_Army_(Armee_de_Terre).svg.png)
French Army in the American War of Independence
(1994)
May, Robin. The
British Army

British Army in North America 1775–1783 (1993)
The Partisan in War, a treatise on light infantry tactics written by
Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789.
External links
Look up
American Revolutionary War

American Revolutionary War in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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American Revolutionary War 1775–1783 in the News
Important battles of the American Revolutionary War
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Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution
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