Almroth Wright
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Sir Almroth Edward Wright (10 August 1861 – 30 April 1947) was a British
bacteriologist A bacteriologist is a microbiologist, or similarly trained professional, in bacteriology -- a subdivision of microbiology that studies bacteria, typically pathogenic ones. Bacteriologists are interested in studying and learning about bacteria, ...
and immunologist. He is notable for developing a system of anti-
typhoid fever Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by '' Salmonella'' serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over severa ...
inoculation Inoculation is the act of implanting a pathogen or other microorganism. It may refer to methods of artificially inducing immunity against various infectious diseases, or it may be used to describe the spreading of disease, as in "self-inoculati ...
, recognizing early on that
antibiotics An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and preventio ...
would create resistant bacteria, and being a strong advocate for
preventive medicine Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, consists of measures taken for the purposes of disease prevention.Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental hea ...
.


Biography

Wright was born at Middleton Tyas, near
Richmond, North Yorkshire Richmond is a market town and civil parish in North Yorkshire, England, and the administrative centre of the district of Richmondshire. Historically in the North Riding of Yorkshire, it is from the county town of Northallerton and situated on ...
into a family of mixed
Anglo-Irish Anglo-Irish people () denotes an ethnic, social and religious grouping who are mostly the descendants and successors of the English Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. They mostly belong to the Anglican Church of Ireland, which was the establis ...
and Swedish descent.Michael Worboys, 'Wright, Sir Almroth Edward (1861–1947)’, He was the son of Reverend
Charles Henry Hamilton Wright Charles Henry Hamilton Wright (9 March 1836, Dublin – 22 March 1909) was an Irish Anglican clergyman. Biography Wright was the second son of barrister Edward Wright and his wife Charlotte. His older brother was Edward Percival Wright. He gradu ...
, deacon of Middleton Tyas, who later served in
Belfast Belfast ( , ; from ga, Béal Feirste , meaning 'mouth of the sand-bank ford') is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan on the east coast. It is the 12th-largest city in the United Kingdom ...
,
Dublin Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 ...
, and
Liverpool Liverpool is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and metropolitan borough in Merseyside, England. With a population of in 2019, it is the List of English districts by population, 10th largest English district by population and its E ...
and managed the Protestant Reformation Society. His mother, Ebba Almroth, was the daughter of , Governor of the Swedish Royal Mint in
Stockholm Stockholm () is the capital and largest city of Sweden as well as the largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people live in the municipality, with 1.6 million in the urban area, and 2.4 million in the metropo ...
.
Sir Charles Hagberg Wright (obituary)
'.
The Times ''The Times'' is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its current name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its sister paper '' The Sunday Times'' ( ...
, 7 March 1940.
His younger brother Charles Theodore Hagberg Wright became the librarian of the London Library. In 1882, he graduated from
Trinity College Dublin , name_Latin = Collegium Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis Reginae Elizabethae juxta Dublin , motto = ''Perpetuis futuris temporibus duraturam'' (Latin) , motto_lang = la , motto_English = It will last i ...
with first-class honours in modern literature and won a gold medal in modern languages and literature. Simultaneously he took medicine courses and in 1883 graduated in medicine. In the late 19th century, Wright worked with the armed forces of Britain to develop vaccines and promote immunisation. He married Jane Georgina Wilson (1861-1926) in 1889 and had three children. The first, Edward Robert Mackay Wright (1890-1913), was born in Glebe, Sydney. Second son Leonard Almoth Wilson Wright (1891-1972) was born in Dublin, as was daughter Doris Helena MacNaughton Wright (later Romanes, after whom the
Helena Romanes School Helena Romanes School (HRS) is a coeducational all-through school and sixth form. It is situated in Great Dunmow in the English county of Essex. A Sports and Leisure Centre, shared with the local community, is also located on site. History H ...
was named) (1894-1990). In 1902, Wright started a research department at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
. He developed a system of anti-
typhoid fever Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by '' Salmonella'' serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over severa ...
inoculation Inoculation is the act of implanting a pathogen or other microorganism. It may refer to methods of artificially inducing immunity against various infectious diseases, or it may be used to describe the spreading of disease, as in "self-inoculati ...
and brought the humoral and cellular theories of immunity together by showing the cooperation of a substance (that he named opsonin) contained in the serum with the phagocytes against pathogens. Citing the example of the
Second Boer War The Second Boer War ( af, Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, , 11 October 189931 May 1902), also known as the Boer War, the Anglo–Boer War, or the South African War, was a conflict fought between the British Empire and the two Boer Republics (the So ...
, during which many soldiers died from easily preventable diseases, Wright convinced the armed forces that 10 million vaccine doses for the troops in northern France should be produced during
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
. During WWI Wright established a research laboratory attached to the British Expeditionary Force's hospital designated Number 13, General Hospital in
Boulogne-sur-Mer Boulogne-sur-Mer (; pcd, Boulonne-su-Mér; nl, Bonen; la, Gesoriacum or ''Bononia''), often called just Boulogne (, ), is a coastal city in Hauts-de-France, Northern France. It is a Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture of the Department ...
. In 1919 Wright returned to St Mary's and remained there until his retirement in 1946. Among the many bacteriologists who followed in Wright's footsteps at St Mary's was Sir Alexander Fleming, who in turn later discovered lysozyme and
penicillin Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from '' Penicillium'' moulds, principally '' P. chrysogenum'' and '' P. rubens''. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum usin ...
. Wright was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the judges of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathemati ...
in May 1906. Leonard Colebrook became his assistant in 1907 and continued working with him until 1929. Wright warned early on that
antibiotics An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and preventio ...
would create resistant bacteria, something that has proven an increasing danger. He made his thoughts on
preventive medicine Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, consists of measures taken for the purposes of disease prevention.Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental hea ...
influential, stressing preventive measures. Wright's ideas have been re-asserted recently—70 years after his death—by modern researchers in articles in such periodicals as ''
Scientific American ''Scientific American'', informally abbreviated ''SciAm'' or sometimes ''SA'', is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein and Nikola Tesla, have contributed articles to it. In print since 1845, it ...
''. He also argued that microorganisms are vehicles of disease but not its cause, a theory that earned him the nickname "Almroth Wrong" from his opponents. Another derogatory nickname was "Sir Almost Wright". He also proposed that
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
be introduced as a part of medical training, but his idea was never adopted. Wright also pointed out that
Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named after ...
and Fleming, although both excellent researchers, had not actually managed to find cures for the diseases for which they had sought cures, but instead had stumbled upon cures for totally unrelated diseases. Wright was a strong proponent of the Ptomaine theory for the cause of
Scurvy Scurvy is a deficiency disease, disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, anemia, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, ch ...
. The theory was that poorly preserved meats contained alkaloids that were poisonous to humans when consumed. This theory was prevalent when
Robert Falcon Scott Captain Robert Falcon Scott, , (6 June 1868 – c. 29 March 1912) was a British Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the ''Discovery'' expedition of 1901–1904 and the ill-fated ''Terra Nov ...
planned his fateful expedition to the
Antarctic The Antarctic ( or , American English also or ; commonly ) is a polar region around Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau and othe ...
in 1911. In 1932, the true cause of the disease was determined to be the deficiency from the diet of a particular
nutrient A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excre ...
, now called
Vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
(
Ascorbic acid Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
, Scorbic meaning
Scurvy Scurvy is a deficiency disease, disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, anemia, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, ch ...
). There is a ward named after him at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London.


Women's suffrage

Wright was strongly opposed to women's suffrage. He argued that women's brains were innately different from men's and were not constituted to deal with social and public issues. His arguments were most fully expounded in his book '' The Unexpurgated Case Against Woman Suffrage'' (1913). In the book, Wright also vigorously opposes the professional development of women.
Rebecca West Dame Cicily Isabel Fairfield (21 December 1892 – 15 March 1983), known as Rebecca West, or Dame Rebecca West, was a British author, journalist, literary critic and travel writer. An author who wrote in many genres, West reviewed books ...
and
May Sinclair May Sinclair was the pseudonym of Mary Amelia St. Clair (24 August 1863 – 14 November 1946), a popular British writer who wrote about two dozen novels, short stories and poetry. She was an active suffragist, and member of the Woman Writers' ...
both wrote articles criticizing Wright's opposition to women's suffrage. Charlotte Perkins Gilman satirized Wright's opposition to women's suffrage in her novel '' Herland''.


Bernard Shaw

Wright was a friend of his fellow-Irishman
George Bernard Shaw George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist. His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from ...
. He was immortalised as Sir Colenso Ridgeon in the play '' The Doctor's Dilemma'' written in 1906, which arose from conversations between Shaw and Wright. Shaw credits Wright as the source of his information on medical science: "It will be evident to all experts that my play could not have been written but for the work done by Sir Almroth Wright on the theory and practice of securing immunization from bacterial diseases by the inoculation of vaccines made of their own bacteria." This remark of Shaw's is characteristically ironical. Wright was knighted shortly before the play was written, and Shaw was suspicious of Wright's high reputation (the latter was also known by the nickname Sir Almost Right). The two men met in 1905, and engaged in a long series of robust discussions, involving at one point a challenge from the medical audience that they had "too many patients on our hands already". Shaw's response was to ask what would be done if there was more demand from patients than could be satisfied, and Wright answered: "We should have to consider which life was worth saving." This became the "dilemma" of the play. Shaw also portrays him in his playlet ''
How These Doctors Love One Another! ''How These Doctors Love One Another!'' is a short playlet written in 1931 by George Bernard Shaw which satirises a dispute between two doctors about the use of antiseptics in surgery. Shaw regularly attacked conventional medicine in his works. C ...
'' and uses his theory of bacterial mutation in '' Too True to Be Good''. Shaw, who campaigned for women's suffrage, strongly disagreed with Wright about women's brains and dismissed his views on the subject as absurd.


Awards

Wright had been honoured for his deeds a total of 29 times in his lifetime – a knighthood, 5 honorary doctorates, 5 honorary orders, 6 fellowships (2 honoraries), 4 prizes, 4 memberships, and 3 medals (
Buchanan Medal The Buchanan Medal is awarded by the Royal Society "in recognition of distinguished contribution to the medical sciences generally". The award was created in 1897 from a fund to the memory of London physician Sir George Buchanan (1831–1895). It ...
, Fothergill Gold Medal and a special medal "for the best medical work in connection with the war"). He was nominated 14 times for the Nobel prize from 1906 to 1925. * 1906
Knighthood A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the ...
* 1906 Fellowship of the
Royal Society of London The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, r ...
* 1906 Fellowship of the
Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) is a medical professional and educational institution, which is also known as RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ireland's first private university. It was established in 1784 ...
* 1906 Honorary D.Sc.,
Dublin University The University of Dublin ( ga, Ollscoil Átha Cliath), corporately designated the Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of the University of Dublin, is a university located in Dublin, Ireland. It is the degree-awarding body for Trinity College Du ...
* 1908 The Fothergill Gold Medal, presented by the Medical Society of London * 1912 The Freedom of the City of Belfast * 1913 The Hungarian Prize, presented by the International Congress in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
* 1915 Companion of the
Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I of Great Britain, George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate medieval ceremony for appointing a knight, which involved Bathing#Medieval ...
* 1915 The Le Conte Prize (50,000 francs), presented by
Institute of France The (; ) is a French learned society, grouping five , including the Académie Française. It was established in 1795 at the direction of the National Convention. Located on the Quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, the institute m ...
* 1915 The Belgian Ordre de la Couronne * 1916 Associate Membership of the Paris Academie de Medicine * 1917 The
Buchanan Medal The Buchanan Medal is awarded by the Royal Society "in recognition of distinguished contribution to the medical sciences generally". The award was created in 1897 from a fund to the memory of London physician Sir George Buchanan (1831–1895). It ...
, presented by the
Royal Society of London The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, r ...
* 1918 Elected a Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France The (; ) is a French learned society, grouping five , including the Académie Française. It was established in 1795 at the direction of the National Convention. Located on the Quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, the institute m ...
* 1918 The
Serbian Order of St. Sava The Royal Order of St. Sava is an Order (distinction), Order of merit, first awarded by the Kingdom of Serbia in 1883 and later by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It was awarded to nationals and foreigner ...
(1st Class) * 1919
Knight Commander Commander ( it, Commendatore; french: Commandeur; german: Komtur; es, Comendador; pt, Comendador), or Knight Commander, is a title of honor prevalent in chivalric orders and fraternal orders. The title of Commander occurred in the medieval mili ...
of the
Order of the British Empire The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the civil service. It was established ...
* 1919 Honorary D.Sc.,
Leeds University , mottoeng = And knowledge will be increased , established = 1831 – Leeds School of Medicine1874 – Yorkshire College of Science1884 - Yorkshire College1887 – affiliated to the federal Victoria University1904 – University of Leeds , ...
* 1919 Honorary Fellowship,
Royal Society of Medicine The Royal Society of Medicine (RSM) is a medical society in the United Kingdom, headquartered in London. History The Society was established in 1805 as Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, meeting in two rooms in barristers’ chamber ...
,
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
* 1920 A special medal awarded by the
Royal Society of Medicine The Royal Society of Medicine (RSM) is a medical society in the United Kingdom, headquartered in London. History The Society was established in 1805 as Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, meeting in two rooms in barristers’ chamber ...
"for the best medical work in connection with the war" * 1921 Membership Imperial Society of Medicine,
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
* 1921 The
Order of Prince Danilo I The Order of Prince Danilo I ( cnr, Орден Књаза Данила I, translit=Orden Knjaza Danila I) was an order of the Principality and later Kingdom, of Montenegro. It is currently a dynastic order granted by the head of the House of Pet ...
(1st Class) * 1924 Doctorate of the
University of Paris , image_name = Coat of arms of the University of Paris.svg , image_size = 150px , caption = Coat of Arms , latin_name = Universitas magistrorum et scholarium Parisiensis , motto = ''Hic et ubique terrarum'' (Latin) , mottoeng = Here and a ...
* 1927 Honorary LL.D. of
Edinburgh University The University of Edinburgh ( sco, University o Edinburgh, gd, Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann; abbreviated as ''Edin.'' in Post-nominal letters, post-nominals) is a Public university, public research university based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Granted ...
and Queen's University * 1927 Honorary Membership of the Viennese Society of Microbiology * 1931 Honorary Fellowship of
Trinity College Dublin , name_Latin = Collegium Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis Reginae Elizabethae juxta Dublin , motto = ''Perpetuis futuris temporibus duraturam'' (Latin) , motto_lang = la , motto_English = It will last i ...
* 1931 Honorary Doctorate of Medicine, the
University of Buenos Aires The University of Buenos Aires ( es, Universidad de Buenos Aires, UBA) is a public research university in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Established in 1821, it is the premier institution of higher learning in the country and one of the most prestigi ...
* 1932 Fellowship of the
Royal College of Physicians of Ireland The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI), ( ga, Coláiste Ríoga Lianna na hÉireann) is an Irish professional body dedicated to improving the practice of general medicine and related medical specialities, chiefly through the accredit ...
* 1932 The Stewart Prize, awarded by the British Medical Association * 1938 Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians of England


Works

Wright's work could be split up into the following three phases * Early phase (1891–1910) – over 20 medical journal publications, lectures for students and other scientific works ** ''Upon a new septic'' (1891) ** ''On the conditions which determine the distribution of the coagulation'' (1891) ** ''A new method of blood transfusion'' (1891) ** ''Grocers' research scholarship lectures'' (1891) ** ''Lecture on tissue- or cell-fibrinogen'' (1892) ** ''On the leucocytes of peptone and other varieties of liquid extravascular blood'' (1893) ** ''On Haffkine's method of vaccination against Asiatic cholera'' (1893, coauthored with D. Bruce) ** ''Remarks on methods of increasing and diminishing the coagulability of the blood'' (1894) ** ''On the association of serous haemorrhages'' (1896) ** ''A suggestion as to the possible cause of the corona observed in certain after images'' (1897) ** ''On the application of the serum test to the differential diagnosis of typhoid and Malta fever'' (1897) ** ''Remarks on vaccination against typhoid fever'' (1897, coauthored with D. Semple) ** ''An experimental investigation on the role of the blood fluids in connection with phagocytosis'' (1903, coauthored with Stewart Rankin Douglas) ** ''On the action exerted upon the tubercle bacillus by human blood fluids'' (1904, coauthored with Stewart Rankin Douglas) ** ''A short treatise on anti-typhoid inoculation'' (1904) ** ''On the possibility of determining the presence or absence of tubercular infection'' (1906, coauthored with S. T. Reid) ** ''On spontaneous phagocytosis'' (1906, coauthored with S. T. Reid) ** ''Studies on immunisation and their application to the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections'' (1909) ** ''Vaccine therapy—its administration, value, and limitations'' (1910) ** ''Introduction to vaccine therapy'' (1920) * War phases (1914–1918 and 1941–1945) – mostly works about wounds, wound infections and new perspectives on the topic ** ''Wound infections and some new methods'' (1915) ** ''Conditions which govern the growth of the bacillus of "Gas Gangrene"'' (1917) ** ''Pathology and Treatment of War Wounds'' (1942) ** ''Researches in Clinical Physiology'' (1943) ** ''Studies on Immunization'' (2 vol., 1943–1944) * Philosophy phase (1918–1941 and 1945–1947) – more or less philosophic works, including thoughts on logic, equality, science and scientific methods ** '' The Unexpurgated Case against Woman Suffrage'' (1913) ** ''The Conditions of Medical Research'' (1920) ** ''Alethetropic Logic : a posthumous work'' (1953, presented by Giles J. Romanes) * Handbooks ** ''Principles of microscopy : being a handbook to the microscope'' (1906) ** ''Technique of the teat and capillary glass tube'' (1912)


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * The Plato of Praed street: the life and times of Almroth Wright. M.S.Dunnill. RSM Press 2000


See also

* Frederick F. Russell


References


External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Wright, Almroth 1861 births 1947 deaths People from Richmond, North Yorkshire Alumni of Trinity College Dublin British immunologists British microbiologists Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Companions of the Order of the Bath Vaccinologists Fellows of the Royal Society Honorary Fellows of Trinity College Dublin Members of the French Academy of Sciences People from Richmondshire (district) Typhoid fever Physicians of St Mary's Hospital, London Almroth