1929 Bahamas hurricane
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The 1929 Bahamas hurricane (also known as the Great Andros Island Hurricane) was a high-end Category 4
tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
whose intensity and slow forward speed led to catastrophic damage in
the Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to ...
in September 1929, particularly on
Andros Andros ( el, Άνδρος, ) is the northernmost island of the Greek Cyclades archipelago, about southeast of Euboea, and about north of Tinos. It is nearly long, and its greatest breadth is . It is for the most part mountainous, with many fr ...
and
New Providence New Providence is the most populous island in the Bahamas, containing more than 70% of the total population. It is the location of the national capital city of Nassau, whose boundaries are coincident with the island; it had a population of 246 ...
islands. Its erratic path and a lack of nearby weather observations made the hurricane difficult to locate and forecast. The storm later made two landfalls in
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, killing eleven but causing comparatively light damage. Moisture from the storm led to extensive
flooding A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrolog ...
over the
Southeastern United States The Southeastern United States, also referred to as the American Southeast or simply the Southeast, is a geographical region of the United States. It is located broadly on the eastern portion of the southern United States and the southern por ...
, particularly along the
Savannah River The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the norther ...
. Across its path from the Bahamas to the
mouth In animal anatomy, the mouth, also known as the oral cavity, or in Latin cavum oris, is the opening through which many animals take in food and issue vocal sounds. It is also the cavity lying at the upper end of the alimentary canal, bounded on ...
of the
Saint Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connectin ...
, the hurricane killed 155 people. The storm's origins can be traced to
tropical wave A tropical wave (also called easterly wave, tropical easterly wave, and African easterly wave), in and around the Atlantic Ocean, is a type of atmospheric trough, an elongated area of relatively low air pressure, oriented north to south, which ...
first noted near the
Cabo Verde , national_anthem = () , official_languages = Portuguese , national_languages = Cape Verdean Creole , capital = Praia , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , demonym ...
Islands on September 11, 1929. This tropical disturbance remained dormant as it tracked west until September 18, when an associated area of thunderstorms developed into a
tropical depression A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
northeast of
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
. Gradually strengthening, the depression reached
tropical storm A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
strength on September 22 and hurricane strength on September 23. Beginning on September 24, the storm took a slow and southwestward path through the Bahamas, passing over
Nassau Nassau may refer to: Places Bahamas *Nassau, Bahamas, capital city of the Bahamas, on the island of New Providence Canada *Nassau District, renamed Home District, regional division in Upper Canada from 1788 to 1792 *Nassau Street (Winnipeg), ...
and Andros Island between September 25–26 with
maximum sustained wind The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone is a common indicator of the intensity of the storm. Within a mature tropical cyclone, it is found within the eyewall at a distance defined as the radius of maximum wind, or RMW. Unl ...
s of 145 mph (230 km/h). This southwestward trajectory was unprecedented for the islands. The storm then curved west and struck the
Florida Keys The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami, and e ...
at
Key Largo Key Largo ( es, Cayo Largo) is an island in the upper Florida Keys archipelago and is the largest section of the keys, at long. It is one of the northernmost of the Florida Keys in Monroe County, and the northernmost of the keys connected b ...
on September 28 with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Two days later, the cyclone moved ashore
Apalachicola, Florida Apalachicola ( ) is a city and the county seat of Franklin County, Florida, United States, on the shore of Apalachicola Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. The population was 2,231 at the 2010 census. History The Apalachicola people, after ...
, as a minimal hurricane shortly before transitioning into an
extratropical cyclone Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, are low-pressure areas which, along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas, drive the weather over much of the Earth. Extratropical cyclones are capable of ...
. This system tracked northeast along the interior of the
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before dissipating near the Saint Lawrence River on October 4. Poorly-built structures and ships were destroyed throughout the Bahamas. Andros Island was within the envelope of the storm's
hurricane-force The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale. History The scale was devised in 1805 by the Irish hydrographer Francis Beaufo ...
winds and
storm surge A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge, or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as cyclones. It is measured as the rise in water level above the n ...
for two days. Parts of the island were inundated by a surge that advanced inland, wiping out all crops and most fruit trees and livestock. A wind gust of was measured in Nassau, which also experienced the calm of the hurricane's
eye Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and conv ...
for two hours. An estimated 73% of the city's homes and businesses sustained damage, leaving more than 5,000 people without homes. The hurricane was a heavy blow to the declining
sponge Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through t ...
industry on the islands. Following the storm, wild birds and crops were brought from the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
to replenish their losses in the Bahamas. New
building code A building code (also building control or building regulations) is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and non-building structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission ...
s were enacted after the 1929 storm to prevent similarly extensive destruction. A storm surge battered the
Florida Keys The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami, and e ...
, washing out highways and sinking small fishing boats. At least five
tornado A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is often referred to as a twister, whirlwind or cyclone, altho ...
es struck Florida, representing some of the first verified reports of tornadoes caused by a tropical cyclone. One impacted
Fort Lauderdale A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
's business center and caused $100,000 in damage. The Apalachicola waterfront sustained heavy damage from the storm's final landfall, including the loss of nearly all wharves. Widespread flooding occurred throughout
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and
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due to the continuous influx of moisture from the slowly-moving hurricane. A maximum rainfall total of was registered in
Glennville, Georgia Glennville is a city in Tattnall County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 3,834. Geography Glennville is located at (31.939206, -81.926866). It is 29.3 miles from Baxley, Georgia. According to the Un ...
. The
Savannah River The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the norther ...
reached a record
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of at
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, breaching a levee and inundating much of the surrounding floodplain. The damage toll in the United States totaled to at least $9.31 million.


Background

The Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to ...
is an archipelago especially vulnerable to
tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
s due to its position within the
storm track ''Storm Track'' was the first magazine for and about storm chasing. The magazine was in circulation between 1977 and 2002. History and profile ''Storm Track'' was started in 1977 by chasing pioneer David Hoadley following an informal meeting o ...
s of Atlantic hurricanes. Approximately 80% of its landmass has an elevation within of
mean sea level There are several kinds of mean in mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. ...
. Before 1929, the islands were hit by hurricanes in
1866 Events January–March * January 1 ** Fisk University, a historically black university, is established in Nashville, Tennessee. ** The last issue of the abolitionist magazine '' The Liberator'' is published. * January 6 – Ottoman tr ...
,
1899 Events January 1899 * January 1 ** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. ** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City. * January 2 – **Bolivia sets up a c ...
, and
1926 Events January * January 3 – Theodoros Pangalos declares himself dictator in Greece. * January 8 **Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud is crowned King of Hejaz. ** Crown Prince Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh Thuy ascends the throne, the last monarch of V ...
that each killed over a hundred people. The Bahamas, at the time a
Crown colony A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony administered by The Crown within the British Empire. There was usually a Governor, appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the UK Government, with or without the assistance of a local Counci ...
, was adversely affected by the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
. The economic downturn was further compounded by a sharp reduction in demand in the colony's
sisal Sisal (, ) (''Agave sisalana'') is a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico, but widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a stiff fibre used in making rope and various other products. The term sisal ma ...
and
sponge Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through t ...
after
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, a weak
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relative to the
American dollar The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official ...
, and a severe drought in the central and southern islands. Hurricane warning systems in the Bahamas were mostly non-existent in 1929; islanders relied on personal weather instruments or the behavior of clouds, tides, and fauna to assess risk. District officers were responsible for informing others of a storm's approach based on the
barometer A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis ...
housed in their homes. Flags signaling a hurricane's approach were present at Bahamian forts but were raised arbitrarily and inconsistently.


Meteorological history

The hurricane can be traced back to a complex of disturbed weather near
Cabo Verde , national_anthem = () , official_languages = Portuguese , national_languages = Cape Verdean Creole , capital = Praia , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , demonym ...
on September 11, producing showers across the open waters of the Atlantic and directed westward by the
Azores High The Azores High also known as North Atlantic (Subtropical) High/Anticyclone or the Bermuda-Azores High, is a large subtropical semi-permanent centre of high atmospheric pressure typically found south of the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean, at the Hor ...
. The disturbance remained a weak
tropical wave A tropical wave (also called easterly wave, tropical easterly wave, and African easterly wave), in and around the Atlantic Ocean, is a type of atmospheric trough, an elongated area of relatively low air pressure, oriented north to south, which ...
for much of its early history, but over time gradually organized. By September 15,
weather map A weather map, also known as synoptic weather chart, displays various meteorological features across a particular area at a particular point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings. Such maps have been in use since the m ...
s began to notate the system as a trough of low pressure north of the
Lesser Antilles The Lesser Antilles ( es, link=no, Antillas Menores; french: link=no, Petites Antilles; pap, Antias Menor; nl, Kleine Antillen) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc betwe ...
. A portion of this trough split off and moved northwest towards the
South Atlantic states The South Atlantic United States form one of the nine Census Bureau Divisions within the United States that are recognized by the United States Census Bureau. This region, U.S. Census Bureau Region 3, Division 5, corresponds to the South (states ...
while the remaining disturbance continued to organize, becoming a
tropical depression A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
approximately 355 mi (570 km) northeast of
San Juan, Puerto Rico San Juan (, , ; Spanish for "Saint John") is the capital city and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2020 census, it is the 57th-largest city under the jur ...
, by September 18. Over the next three days, the system remained a tropical depression as it tracked slowly west. It reached
tropical storm A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
strength by September 22 while northwest of San Juan and curved northwest. Continuing to strengthen, the storm reached hurricane intensity the following day. On September 24, the hurricane began to slowly move southwest towards the
Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to ...
, traversing the Northeast Providence Channel. Until that point, few observations probed the core of the hurricane on its approach of the islands due to its small size. In 2010, the
Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seeks to correct and add new information about past North Atlantic hurricanes. It was started around 2000 to update HURDAT, the official hurricane d ...
determined the storm had been rapidly intensifying during this period. On September 25, the steamship ''Potomac'' measured a central
air pressure Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The Standard atmosphere (unit), standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as , which is equival ...
of 924 
mbar The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but not part of the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as exactly equal to 100,000  Pa (100 kPa), or slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea leve ...
(
hPa HPA may refer to: Organizations * Harry Potter Alliance, a charity * Halifax Port Authority, Canada * Hamburg Port Authority, Germany * Hawaii Preparatory Academy, a school in Hawaii, US * Health Protection Agency, UK * Heerespersonalamt, the Ger ...
; 27.30 
inHg Inch of mercury (inHg and ″Hg) is a non- SI unit of measurement for pressure. It is used for barometric pressure in weather reports, refrigeration and aviation in the United States. It is the pressure exerted by a column of mercury in heigh ...
), suggesting wind speeds of 155 mph (250 km/h): a high-end on the
Saffir–Simpson scale The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) classifies hurricanes—which in the Western Hemisphere are tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms—into five categories distinguished by ...
. At 00:30  UTC on September 25, the intense hurricane passed over
Nassau Nassau may refer to: Places Bahamas *Nassau, Bahamas, capital city of the Bahamas, on the island of New Providence Canada *Nassau District, renamed Home District, regional division in Upper Canada from 1788 to 1792 *Nassau Street (Winnipeg), ...
with sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h); the capital city was within the calm of the
eye Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and conv ...
for two hours. The next day, the storm crossed
Andros Island Andros Island is an archipelago within the Bahamas, the largest of the Bahamian Islands. Politically considered a single island, Andros in total has an area greater than all the other 700 Bahamian islands combined. The land area of Andros consis ...
south of Fresh Creek, moving at , and afterwards curved slowly towards the west-northwest over the
Florida Straits The Straits of Florida, Florida Straits, or Florida Strait ( es, Estrecho de Florida) is a strait located south-southeast of the North American mainland, generally accepted to be between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, and between th ...
towards
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
. A
high-pressure area A high-pressure area, high, or anticyclone, is an area near the surface of a planet where the atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure in the surrounding regions. Highs are middle-scale meteorological features that result from interpl ...
associated with cool temperatures over the United States had been responsible for the sudden southwest trajectory over the Bahamas. The
United States Weather Bureau The National Weather Service (NWS) is an agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with providing weather forecasts, warnings of hazardous weather, and other weather-related products to organizations and the public for the p ...
remarked that the storm's track was "one of the most erratic and abnormal during the last 50 years", with both the slow movement and inadequate observations contributing in the agency's difficulty in locating the center of the storm. The hurricane's winds lessened while its size grew on its Florida approach, and on the morning of September 28, it crossed the
Florida Keys The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami, and e ...
near
Key Largo Key Largo ( es, Cayo Largo) is an island in the upper Florida Keys archipelago and is the largest section of the keys, at long. It is one of the northernmost of the Florida Keys in Monroe County, and the northernmost of the keys connected b ...
with winds of . A pressure of 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg) was estimated within a 10-minute lull near the eye's edge at Key Largo. Further weakening occurred as the hurricane accelerated northwestward into the eastern
Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico ( es, Golfo de México) is an oceanic basin, ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of ...
, continuing this heading for two days. On September 30, the storm made an unexpectedly sharp turn towards the northeast, making
landfall Landfall is the event of a storm moving over land after being over water. More broadly, and in relation to human travel, it refers to 'the first land that is reached or seen at the end of a journey across the sea or through the air, or the fact ...
near
Panama City, Florida Panama City is a city in and the county seat of Bay County, Florida, United States. Located along U.S. Highway 98 (US 98), it is the largest city between Tallahassee and Pensacola. It is the more populated city of the Panama City–Lynn Ha ...
, near midnight as a low-end hurricane with winds of . Positioned near a steep
temperature gradient A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location. The temperature gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of degree ...
, the storm quickly transitioned into an
extratropical cyclone Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, are low-pressure areas which, along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas, drive the weather over much of the Earth. Extratropical cyclones are capable of ...
on October 1 shortly after landfall with cold air wrapping around the circulation. The extratropical cyclone quickly moved northeast across the Eastern Seaboard, eventually dissipating near the
Saint Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connectin ...
by October 5.


Effects in the Bahamas

The 1929 hurricane brought catastrophic damage to parts of the Bahamas, killing 142 people. There, the storm has several monikers, including the "Storm of 1929" and the "Three-day Storm", among others. The storm's effects were exacerbated by the hurricane's slow motion, producing hurricane conditions for three days. Whereas the worst impacts of storms in the Bahamas were typically along coasts, the slow movement of the 1929 storm resulted in uniform destruction on both insular coasts and interiors. It was the first known instance of a storm approaching the islands from the northeast and the fifth hurricane overall to strike the island in three years. The unusual path placed Andros and New Providence islands within the strongest quadrant of the storm; the hurricane passed over these islands with an intensity equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern
Saffir–Simpson scale The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) classifies hurricanes—which in the Western Hemisphere are tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms—into five categories distinguished by ...
. The swath of winds exceeding 100 mph (160 km/h) cut through much of the Bahamas, encompassing the entirety of Andros and New Providence islands and parts of
Great Abaco Island Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
and the
Berry Islands The Berry Islands are a chain of islands and a district of the Bahamas, covering about of the northwestern part of the Out Islands. The Berry Islands consist of about thirty islands and over one hundred small islands or cays, often referred to ...
. The weaker construction standards of the era succumbed to the force of the hurricane. Poorly-built structures were destroyed en masse by the storm. Many ships throughout the Bahamas were driven ashore and destroyed. The sponging industry, at the time the colony's most prominent economic activity, was badly affected; nearly all sponge warehouses and roughly 70% of sponge vessels were destroyed, with many other ships sustaining serious damage. Communication was lost between many of the islands in the Bahamas. Only a few radio stations remained in the
Out Islands The Out Islands are the islands that make up the Bahamas with the exception of New Providence Island, where the capital and largest city, Nassau, is located and Grand Bahama Island, where Freeport is located.David Hamilton-Jones, "Problems of In ...
, with limited capacity for international communications. Crops sustained widespread losses and roads required significant repairs. Andros and New Providence experienced the heaviest blow in the Bahamas. Other islands in the Bahamas sustained lesser impacts as the force of winds was diminished farther out from the center of the storm.
Great Abaco Island Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
endured hurricane-force winds of up to 100 mph (160 km/h) for 36 hours, causing "minor to major damage". Nineteen homes and twelve boats were wrecked on the island. The steamship ''Wisconsin Bridge'' went aground along the southeastern tip of Abaco Island near the Hole-in-the-Wall lighthouse; all but one of the 34 crew chose not to evacuate, and those that did perished. The lighthouse was also damaged by the storm. The British freighter ''Domira'' went aground off Great Abaco on September 25. A colonial
lighthouse tender A lighthouse tender is a ship specifically designed to maintain, support, or tend to lighthouses or lightvessels, providing supplies, fuel, mail, and transportation. In the United States, these ships originally served as part of the Lighthous ...
was designated to render assistance but could not depart promptly due to the rough seas. Minor damage was also reported on
Eleuthera Eleuthera () refers both to a single island in the archipelagic state of The Commonwealth of the Bahamas and to its associated group of smaller islands. Eleuthera forms a part of the Great Bahama Bank. The island of Eleuthera incorporates the s ...
and Cat Island. Communications on Eleuthera were disrupted after winds reached 50 mph (80 km/h).
p. 1p. 9
/ref> Strong but mostly non-damaging
gale A gale is a strong wind; the word is typically used as a descriptor in nautical contexts. The U.S. National Weather Service defines a gale as sustained surface winds moving at a speed of between 34 and 47 knots (, or ).squall A squall is a sudden, sharp increase in wind speed lasting minutes, as opposed to a wind gust, which lasts for only seconds. They are usually associated with active weather, such as rain showers, thunderstorms, or heavy snow. Squalls refer to the ...
s were reported in
Great Exuma Island Exuma is a district of The Bahamas, consisting of over 365 islands, also called cays. The largest of the cays is Great Exuma, which is 37 mi (60 km) in length and joined to another island, Little Exuma, by a small bridge. The capital ...
,
Long Island Long Island is a densely populated island in the southeastern region of the U.S. state of New York (state), New York, part of the New York metropolitan area. With over 8 million people, Long Island is the most populous island in the United Sta ...
, and Ragged Island; one schoolhouse collapsed in Ragged Island.


Andros Island

Andros Island experienced its worst storm in at least a century, with the entire island thoroughly devastated. At least 25 fatalities occurred on the island. As the storm's center progressed from the
Tongue of the Ocean The Tongue of the Ocean (TOTO) is the name of a region of much deeper water in the Bahamas separating the islands of Andros and New Providence. Features The TOTO is a U-shaped, relatively flat-bottomed trench measuring approximately . Its depth ...
towards the west of the Bahamas, Andros Island endured hurricane-force winds and rough seas for nearly 48 hours. The onslaught was prolonged by the storm's slow motion— when it moved across Andros Island on September 26—and its expansion as it approached the island; the diameter of the region of hurricane-force winds expanded from upon the storm's initial entrance into the Northeast Providence Channel to atop Andros Island. A
storm surge A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge, or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as cyclones. It is measured as the rise in water level above the n ...
higher than swamped the island from
Mangrove Cay Mangrove Cay is one of the districts of the Bahamas, on Andros Island Andros Island is an archipelago within the Bahamas, the largest of the Bahamian Islands. Politically considered a single island, Andros in total has an area greater than ...
southward, the winds driving the sea inland along the western and southern coasts of Andros Island and raking the land clear of vegetation. According to the annual report for the island submitted to the
Bahamas House of Assembly The Parliament of the Bahamas is the bicameral national parliament of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The parliament is formally made up of the sovereign (represented by the governor-general), an appointed Senate, and an elected House of Ass ...
, all crops and most fruit trees, livestock, and poultry on Andros Island perished. In some locations, the inundation was deep. Areas of the island farther north experienced less flooding. Several ships were lost in the storm at Andros Island. The British tanker ''Potomac'', sailing from
Havana, Cuba Havana (; Spanish: ''La Habana'' ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of the La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.
, encountered the core of the hurricane and broke into two on Andros Island after documenting the lowest pressure associated with the hurricane. Having transported a cargo of oil, the mangled vessel was at risk of an explosion; the captain of the ship took to the boiler room to shut off valves himself. Three ships bound for Andros Island were caught in the storm. Among them was the
schooner A schooner () is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than the mainmast. A common variant, the topsail schoon ...
''Pretoria'', which sank at the entrance to the Fresh Creek Harbor Channel, killing 35 people with only 3 surviving. The schooner ''Repeat'' sank near Grassy Creek with the loss of most lives. At Water Cay, at least sixteen ships lost their entire yields of sponges. Many other boats were destroyed or seriously damaged. Six large
sloop A sloop is a sailboat with a single mast typically having only one headsail in front of the mast and one mainsail aft of (behind) the mast. Such an arrangement is called a fore-and-aft rig, and can be rigged as a Bermuda rig with triangular sa ...
s and another large vessel undergoing repairs were destroyed at Mangrove Cay. Many other vessels were damaged. The wind and waves vacated the seas of any ships, depositing them inland several hundred feet from their anchorage. Ten people drowned at Mangrove Cay. Another 18 drowned en route to the district after their ship sank. Many communities on Andros Island lost homes and were littered by debris from destroyed buildings and storm-tossed boats. All churches on Andros Island were destroyed. Fresh Creek and
Staniard Creek The Staniard Creek is a tidal creek in North Andros, the Bahamas. See also *List of rivers of the Bahamas This is a list of creeks of The Bahamas in alphabetical order for islands that have creeks. There is only one river in The Bahamas, the ...
saw extensive damage from the hurricane. Six homes were razed and ten were badly damaged in Fresh Creek. Two jail cells were unroofed and the commissioner's office, residency, and outbuildings were damaged. The local telegraph station was knocked out of commission and the seawall was damaged. More than 20 people drowned following the sinking of four boats near the Andros Lighthouse at Fresh Creek. Twelve houses were destroyed in Staniard Creek; every remaining home was damaged. The local wharf and a recently completed bridge were washed away. People in the district were urged to seek shelter as water began to overtake the district. Seventy sought refuge at a
Wesleyan Wesleyan theology, otherwise known as Wesleyan– Arminian theology, or Methodist theology, is a theological tradition in Protestant Christianity based upon the ministry of the 18th-century evangelical reformer brothers John Wesley and Charles W ...
mission house only for the building to be inundated by water, forcing the evacuees to relocate to the local schoolhouse. The house eventually held over 100 people; another 50 took shelter at a second school. A church collapsed during the storm with over a hundred inside, injuring one.
Cargill Creek The Cargill Creek is a tidal creek in Cargill Creek, Central Andros, the Bahamas. See also *List of rivers of the Bahamas This is a list of creeks of The Bahamas in alphabetical order for islands that have creeks. There is only one river in ...
was abandoned after being entirely flooded, with only hills rising above the water. All homes were damaged in Blanket Sound, and 13 among them collapsed. Wrecked boats littered the area between Blanket Sound and
Stafford Creek Stafford Creek is a town on North Andros Island in the Bahamas. It is about north of Staniard Creek and about west of Nassau and about southeast of Miami. In 2010, the town had a population of 98. The main road in Stafford creek is off the Qu ...
. All ships at Love Hill and Small Hope were damaged. Five homes were destroyed. Along Calabash Bay, seven houses were flattened. At the graveyard, 22 coffins were exhumed by the rough sea. Fifteen people went missing from Behring Point, where 12 homes were destroyed. Three homes remained in Rolle Town, with the rest destroyed. The wharf on Deep Creek was destroyed and its ships scattered. One ship was set adrift away. Only three of the twenty-seven homes in Black Point, which lies along Deep Creek, remained after the storm. The storm surge along Andros Island's west coast killed ten people tending their crops in Southern Bight.


New Providence Island

Nassau received its first bulletin from the U.S. Weather Bureau on the morning of September 25, shortly before the onset of gale-force winds by noon and hurricane-force winds that evening. Sustained winds at Nassau reached an estimated 120–140 mph (195–225 km/h), punctuated by a maximum gust of . The air pressure bottomed out at 936 mbar (hPa; 27.64 inHg). Radio contact between Florida and Nassau was lost between September 25 and the night of September 27. Few homes were left unscathed, with damage to private property "enormous" according to an
Associated Press The Associated Press (AP) is an American non-profit news agency headquartered in New York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. It produces news reports that are distributed to its members, U.S. newspa ...
report and meteorologist
Ivan Ray Tannehill Ivan Ray Tannehill (March 17, 1890 – May 2, 1959) was a commissioned US Army Lieutenant at Fort Story, Virginia and soon after World War I,Monthly Weather Review (October 1919Note on Pilot-Balloon Flights in a Thunderstorm Formation.Retrieved on ...
. Many homes were unroofed, particularly in the
colored ''Colored'' (or ''coloured'') is a racial descriptor historically used in the United States during the Jim Crow, Jim Crow Era to refer to an African Americans, African American. In many places, it may be considered a Pejorative, slur, though it ...
quarter of Nassau. An estimated 73% of all homes and businesses in the city and 95% of churches were destroyed. Several of the remaining churches lost their roofs. The
Government House Government House is the name of many of the official residences of governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors in the Commonwealth and the remaining colonies of the British Empire. The name is also used in some other countries. Gover ...
's eastern wing was partially unroofed and the mansion of the Ministry of Education was razed. The police barracks and much of the prison lost their roofs; the prison's eventual repair was one of the costliest parts of the post-storm cleanup. Forty prisoners were released due to safety concerns. Parts of the Nassau hospital were damaged beyond repair, requiring demolition and reconstruction. The strength of the winds bent telephone poles at right angles to the ground and stripped the city's
ceiba ''Ceiba'' is a genus of trees in the family Malvaceae, native to tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas (from Mexico and the Caribbean to N Argentina) and tropical West Africa. Some species can grow to tall or more, with a straight, la ...
trees of their branches. Nassau was also inundated by the storm surge and heavy rainfall, submerging parts of the city's southern district with over of water for several days. One street was submerged under of water. Water reached the second floor of a hotel, where a boat was later found. Floodwaters in homes were deep in living rooms. Some people resorted to boring holes in the floors of their houses to drain the water. Potter's Cay was bifurcated by floodwaters. Fields, gardens, and orchards in Nassau were left in disarray. All poultry farms in Nassau were destroyed. On one chicken farm, only 90 of 500 chickens survived. Shipping in the Nassau area suffered a heavy blow. The hurricane wreaked havoc on Nassau Harbour, where many shipowners chose to remain on their ships, which were blown away and never recovered. The sponging fleet was a near-total loss. East Bay Street was littered by the remains of small boats. The
mail steamer Packet boats were medium-sized boats designed for domestic mail, passenger, and freight transportation in European countries and in North American rivers and canals, some of them steam driven. They were used extensively during the 18th and 19th ...
''Princess Montagu'' was blown out of her harbor and stranded on Tony Rock. Her passengers and crew were rescued on September 25. Three other mail ships capsized in the hurricane, including the ''Priscilla'', which serviced the
Abaco Islands Abaco is a variant Italian form of the Biblical name "Habakkuk" (but normally Abacùc or Abacucco). Abaco may refer to: People *Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco (1675–1742), Italian composer and violinist *Joseph Abaco (1710–1805), Belgian compose ...
and
Eleuthera Eleuthera () refers both to a single island in the archipelagic state of The Commonwealth of the Bahamas and to its associated group of smaller islands. Eleuthera forms a part of the Great Bahama Bank. The island of Eleuthera incorporates the s ...
; the ''Ollie Forde'', which serviced Andres Island; and the ''Magic'', which had also been fulfilling the ''Ollie Fordes duties. Long Wharf was also decimated by the storm. In total, nine people died in Nassau, including three drownings. The shores of New Providence Island were tattered by the storm and their structure altered by the force of the waves. Coastal streets were washed out and nearby homes were wrecked. Storm surge flooded roads and swept away homes and parts of the seawall. Boulders and mounds of sand piled up along the main street on Western Esplanade. Sixty-four ships of various types on New Providence Island were destroyed. Numerous buildings throughout the island sustained the collapse of walls and loss of roofs. On some streets, no home was left standing. In total, 456 houses were destroyed and another 640 sustained severe damage throughout New Providence Island. Of the 13,000 people who lived on the island in 1929, over 5,000 were left without homes. Most schools were damaged, and severe impacts were wrought to churches, stores, and shipping. The fruit trees that served as the principal export of the Fox Hill neighborhood were blown down. At Grant's Town, homes were destroyed or unroofed. The eastern wall at
Fort Montagu Fort Montagu is a small fort of four cannon on the eastern shore of New Providence Island (Nassau) Bahamas. Peter Henry Bruce oversaw the construction of the fort that began in 1741 to defend the British possession from Spanish invaders. Co ...
collapsed. Virtually all trees near the fort were denuded of their leaves and branches. One baby was killed and thirty people were stranded on
Athol Island Athol Island is a small island in the Bahamas, which lies east of Paradise Island, which lies directly off of New Providence island. The island is uninhabited. The island runs west to east. The island is part of the National Marine Park. The ...
just off New Providence, with many others injured. Homes on Hog Island were swept away.


Aftermath

With their homes lost, many of the 300 people who sheltered at a church in Grant's Town on New Providence Island remained there for several weeks. Schools delayed their typical opening in September to October 7. The House of Assembly of The Bahamas held a special session between October 16–24, 1929, authorizing relief funds for the islands after assessing the damage and reconstruction needs. The Bahamas Parliament passed ''The Poor People's Housing Hurricane Act of 1929'', creating a
hire purchase A hire purchase (HP), also known as an installment plan, is an arrangement whereby a customer agrees to a contract to acquire an asset by paying an initial installment (e.g., 40% of the total) and repaying the balance of the price of the asset pl ...
system through which the colonial government could lend £6,000 to individual tenants. The government could purchase homes for £40 each; at least 150 homes were provided to the homeless by the act. Approximately 77% of the Bahamian government's annual budgets in 1930 and 1931 were allocated towards repairing the damage caused by the hurricane. Relief efforts were organized by various groups, including the Bahamas Humane Society, Daughters of the Empire, Infant Welfare Association, and Wesleyan Methodist Missionary School. Aid from the central and southeastern islands in the Bahamas less seriously affected by the storm was hindered by an ongoing drought. New
building code A building code (also building control or building regulations) is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and non-building structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission ...
s were enacted to better withstand the effects of hurricanes. Compliance with these codes was intended to secure buildings against winds up to 185 mph (300 km/h), mandating
hurricane straps A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Dependi ...
,
tar paper Tar paper is a heavy-duty paper used in construction. Tar paper is made by impregnating paper or fiberglass mat with tar, producing a waterproof material useful for roof construction. Tar paper is distinguished from roofing felt, which is impreg ...
, and vertical columns of steel-reinforced concrete on new construction. A new Ministry of Education building in Nassau was constructed on the grounds of the one destroyed by the storm. The Government House was repaired and remodeled following the storm. Wild birds were brought to the Bahamas from
Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
to repopulate avian life on New Providence Island. The Board of Agriculture requested early-maturing vegetables from Jamaica and
Trinidad Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. It is often referred to as the southernmos ...
. Legislation was passed that standardized procedures for hoisting hurricane signal flags, issuing a set of flags to all lighthouses of the British Imperial Lighthouse Service. Along with a
fungal disease A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from th ...
that killed 99% of sponges in the Bahamas, the storm precipitated the demise of the sponging industry in the colony, leading to
tourism Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring (disambiguation), touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tour (disambiguation), tours. Th ...
becoming the islands' chief industry. The song "Run Come See Jerusalem" by calypso artist
Blake Alphonso Higgs Blake Alphonso Higgs (1915 – 1986), better known as "Blind Blake", was the best-known performer of goombay and calypso in the Bahamas from the 1930s to the 1960s. Biography Higgs was born in 1915 in Matthew Town, Inagua, Bahamas. For muc ...
, recorded in 1951 and one of the most recognized and recorded folk songs from the Bahamas, recalls the events concerning three ships that were caught in the storm, including the sinking of the ''Pretoria''.


Effects in the United States and Canada


Preparations

The U.S. Weather Bureau began issuing advisories on the storm on September 23, and continued warning on the storm at least twice daily until September 30 after it moved ashore a final time. Storm bulletins were broadcast every 30 minutes by local radio stations. Storm warnings were first issued on the afternoon of September 24 for areas between
Miami, Florida Miami ( ), officially the City of Miami, known as "the 305", "The Magic City", and "Gateway to the Americas", is a East Coast of the United States, coastal metropolis and the County seat, county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade C ...
, and
Charleston, South Carolina Charleston is the largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area. The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint o ...
. Weather Bureau forecasters were forced to frequently change the scope of their warnings due to the hurricane's slow movement, unusual southwesterly track, and lack of observations in the region. The bureau stated it was "impossible to locate the exact center or direction of movement" on September 26, with their storm bulletins communicating this uncertainty.
Hurricane warning Tropical cyclone warnings and watches are alerts issued by national weather forecasting bodies to coastal areas threatened by the imminent approach of a tropical cyclone of tropical storm or hurricane intensity. They are notices to the local popul ...
s were ultimately issued for the
Florida Keys The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami, and e ...
once the hurricane reached the Florida Straits on September 27. Additional hurricane warnings were later issued for coastal extents between
Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
and
Apalachicola, Florida Apalachicola ( ) is a city and the county seat of Franklin County, Florida, United States, on the shore of Apalachicola Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. The population was 2,231 at the 2010 census. History The Apalachicola people, after ...
, in advance of the storm's final landfall. American and Cuban meteorologists initially anticipated the hurricane to strike Florida north of
Miami Miami ( ), officially the City of Miami, known as "the 305", "The Magic City", and "Gateway to the Americas", is a East Coast of the United States, coastal metropolis and the County seat, county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade C ...
. Although the storm was often erratic and difficult to precisely locate, its slow movement allowed for ample warning of potentially affected areas in Florida and time for storm preparations to be completed. In many Florida towns, all precautionary measures were in place by the night of September 25.
p. 1p.2
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Florida Department of Health The Florida Department of Health is responsible for protecting the public health and safety of the residents and visitors of the state of Florida. It is a cabinet-level agency of the state government, headed by a state surgeon general who reports ...
prepared to dispatch health specialists in the risk area. The
124th Infantry Regiment The 124th Infantry Regiment is a parent regiment of the United States Army, represented in the Florida Army National Guard by the 1st Battalion headquartered in Miramar and 2nd Battalion at Orlando. The two Battalions are elements of the 53rd In ...
, serving as the
Florida National Guard The Florida National Guard is the National Guard force of the state of Florida. It comprises the Florida Army National Guard and the Florida Air National Guard. The United States Constitution charges the National Guard with dual federal and stat ...
, was mobilized to assist in the hurricane aftermath if necessary. Emergency relief groups were formed in Broward, Dade, Okeechobee, and Palm Beach counties. The windows of homes and businesses along the coast were boarded up. Storeowners moved vulnerable awnings and signage away to safeguard their stores.
Pan American Airlines Pan American World Airways, originally founded as Pan American Airways and commonly known as Pan Am, was an American airline that was the principal and largest international air carrier and unofficial overseas flag carrier of the United States ...
suspended service between Miami and
Havana, Cuba Havana (; Spanish: ''La Habana'' ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of the La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.
, and also evacuated ten planes from Miami worth $700,000 total to Havana. A partial evacuation of the
Everglades The Everglades is a natural region of tropical climate, tropical wetlands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large drainage basin within the Neotropical realm. The system begins near Orland ...
was conducted on September 25; several hundred people sought refuge in
West Palm Beach West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sunset, Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic languages, German ...
while others fled to
Arcadia Arcadia may refer to: Places Australia * Arcadia, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney * Arcadia, Queensland * Arcadia, Victoria Greece * Arcadia (region), a region in the central Peloponnese * Arcadia (regional unit), a modern administrative un ...
and Sebring. Free travel on railroads was arranged for Pahokee residents evacuating to
Fort Myers Fort Myers (or Ft. Myers) is a city in southwestern Florida and the county seat and commercial center of Lee County, Florida, United States. The Census Bureau's Population Estimates Program calculated that the city's population was 92,245 in 20 ...
,
Tampa Tampa () is a city on the Gulf Coast of the U.S. state of Florida. The city's borders include the north shore of Tampa Bay and the east shore of Old Tampa Bay. Tampa is the largest city in the Tampa Bay area and the seat of Hillsborough County ...
, and Sebring. Evacuees also left West Palm Beach for points farther north. Residents lining the coasts of
Lake Okeechobee Lake Okeechobee (), also known as Florida's Inland Sea, is the largest freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is the tenth largest natural freshwater lake among the 50 states of the United States and the second-largest natural freshwat ...
evacuated for higher ground, with Sebring serving as their most common haven. Public buildings in the
Fort Lauderdale A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
area, such as the courthouse and public schools, were repurposed as shelters. Schools in the area dismissed at noon on September 26. Employees in both private businesses and municipal government were released early to allow individuals to prepare their personal property. In Miami, water reservoirs were filled to ensure adequate water supplies following the storm. Boats were moved into safer areas of harbor or out of the water, including ferries operating between West Palm Beach and Palm Beach. An emergency organization chaired by the
American Red Cross The American Red Cross (ARC), also known as the American National Red Cross, is a non-profit humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States. It is the desi ...
and made of several committees was convened at the Comeau Building in West Palm Beach.
Florida Power & Light Florida Power & Light Company (FPL), the principal subsidiary of NextEra Energy Inc. (formerly FPL Group, Inc.), is the largest power utility in Florida. It is a Juno Beach, Florida-based power utility company serving roughly 5 million customer ...
increased its electricity supply to meet potential emergency demands for the West Palm Beach area. The municipal water and electricity plants in Lake Worth Beach suspended their operations during the storm's duration. Six hundred members of the
American Legion The American Legion, commonly known as the Legion, is a non-profit organization of U.S. war War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militi ...
around West Palm Beach were directed to convene and aid in emergency efforts under the supervision of the Red Cross. Another joint effort between the American Legion, Red Cross, and other volunteer groups was established in Miami. Similar units were formed in
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but ...
and Lake Worth. The Red Cross designated the lobby of a hotel in West Palm Beach as an emergency hospital to process all medical and surgical cases during the storm. Preparations in parts of mainland Florida were scaled back once it became evident that the storm would mostly affect the Florida Keys, with many businesses reopening after two days of closure. Schools were reopened in
Broward County Broward County ( , ) is a county in the southeastern part of Florida, located in the Miami metropolitan area. It is Florida's second-most populous county after Miami-Dade County and the 17th-most populous in the United States, with over 1.94 ...
on September 27. The Weather Bureau advised evacuees from the Everglades that it was potentially safe to return home. With the storm's threat now magnified farther south, the
United States Coast Guard The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is the maritime security, search and rescue, and law enforcement service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the country's eight uniformed services. The service is a maritime, military, mult ...
cutter ''Tallapoosa'' was dispatched to
Key West Key West ( es, Cayo Hueso) is an island in the Straits of Florida, within the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Island, it cons ...
to render aid to ships in the area. Ferry service between Matecumbe Key and
No Name Key No Name Key is an island in the lower Florida Keys in the United States. It is from US 1 and sparsely populated, with only 43 homes. It is only about in comparison to its larger neighbor, Big Pine Key, which lies about half a mile (800 m ...
was discontinued. For the hurricane's landfall in the
Florida panhandle The Florida Panhandle (also West Florida and Northwest Florida) is the northwestern part of the U.S. state of Florida; it is a Salient (geography), salient roughly long and wide, lying between Alabama on the north and the west, Georgia (U. ...
, the Weather Bureau recommended the evacuation of residents living along the coast in the
Pensacola Pensacola () is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle, and the county seat and only incorporated city of Escambia County, Florida, United States. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 54,312. Pensacola is the principal ci ...
area.


Florida

The hurricane's track through the southernmost regions of Florida spared the more densely populated
Gold Coast Gold Coast may refer to: Places Africa * Gold Coast (region), in West Africa, which was made up of the following colonies, before being established as the independent nation of Ghana: ** Portuguese Gold Coast (Portuguese, 1482–1642) ** Dutch G ...
from the storm's worst effects. The resulting damage was "remarkably small for a storm of this character" according to the Weather Bureau, with the state incurring $676,000 in losses; other accounts estimated $821,000, while a figure of $1 million was published in the ''
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society The ''Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society'' is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society. ''BAMS'' is the flagship magazine of AMS and publishes peer reviewed articles of interest and significance for the wea ...
''. Property losses stemmed from both agricultural and utility interests, with damage maximized near the storm's center. Damage to highways accounted for an estimated $300,000 of the toll. Many miles of the
Florida East Coast Railway The Florida East Coast Railway is a Class II railroad operating in the U.S. state of Florida, currently owned by Grupo México. Built primarily in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, the FEC was a pr ...
were damaged. Three deaths occurred in Florida, with one each in
Marathon The marathon is a long-distance foot race with a distance of , usually run as a road race, but the distance can be covered on trail routes. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair div ...
,
Panama City Panama City ( es, Ciudad de Panamá, links=no; ), also known as Panama (or Panamá in Spanish), is the capital and largest city of Panama. It has an urban population of 880,691, with over 1.5 million in its metropolitan area. The city is locat ...
, and Wewahitchka. Another eight deaths occurred offshore due to the loss of the fishing schooner ''Mercia Montgomery'', which departed from Apalachicola on September 28. The storm's slow forward motion contributed to torrential rainfall over South Florida, peaking at 10.63 in (270 mm) in Miami on September 28. Low-lying areas of the city were flooded. Inundation as deep as occurred in
Homestead Homestead may refer to: *Homestead (buildings), a farmhouse and its adjacent outbuildings; by extension, it can mean any small cluster of houses *Homestead (unit), a unit of measurement equal to 160 acres *Homestead principle, a legal concept th ...
. Damage in the Florida Keys was worst north of the hurricane's eye, such as in
Cape Sable Cape Sable is the southernmost point of the United States mainland and mainland Florida. It is located in southwestern Florida, in Monroe County, and is part of the Everglades National Park. The cape is a peninsula issuing from the southeastern ...
,
Upper Matecumbe Key Upper Matecumbe Key is an island in the upper Florida Keys. U.S. 1 (or the Overseas Highway) crosses the key at approximately mile markers 79–83.5, between Windley Key and Lower Matecumbe Key. All of the key is within the Village of Islamor ...
, southern Key Largo, and the
Ten Thousand Islands The Ten Thousand Islands are a chain of islands and mangrove islets off the coast of southwest Florida, between Cape Romano (at the south end of Marco Island) and the mouth of the Lostmans River. Some of the islands are high spots on a submerg ...
.
Storm surge A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge, or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as cyclones. It is measured as the rise in water level above the n ...
heights reached in Garden Cove and washed out highways along the Keys out to
Big Pine Key Big or BIG may refer to: * Big, of great size or degree Film and television * ''Big'' (film), a 1988 fantasy-comedy film starring Tom Hanks * '' Big!'', a Discovery Channel television show * ''Richard Hammond's Big'', a television show present ...
. A gust of was estimated in Key Largo, where the hurricane made landfall. Everglades City experienced winds of and of rainfall. Damage was wrought to 60–65 homes in both Everglades City and
Dupont DuPont de Nemours, Inc., commonly shortened to DuPont, is an American multinational chemical company first formed in 1802 by French-American chemist and industrialist Éleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours. The company played a major role in ...
; they were all repaired within ten days. In
Key West Key West ( es, Cayo Hueso) is an island in the Straits of Florida, within the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Island, it cons ...
, small fishing boats in the upper harbor were overtaken by the high seas, and lighting and telephone service was disrupted; losses were estimated at a few thousand dollars. Railroad service in Key West was unavailable for a week, and mail was delivered to the city by the
United States Coast Guard The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is the maritime security, search and rescue, and law enforcement service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the country's eight uniformed services. The service is a maritime, military, mult ...
. In Miami, winds reached , blowing down electric lines throughout the area and causing power outages in
Miami Beach Miami Beach is a coastal resort city in Miami-Dade County, Florida. It was incorporated on March 26, 1915. The municipality is located on natural and man-made barrier islands between the Atlantic Ocean and Biscayne Bay, the latter of which sep ...
. Damage along the southwestern Florida coast was generally minor, with only minimal impacts north of
Punta Rassa Punta Rassa is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Lee County, Florida, United States. The population was 1,620 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Cape Coral-Fort Myers, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. Geog ...
to
Cedar Key Cedar Key is a city in Levy County, Florida, United States. The population was 702 at the 2010 census. The Cedar Keys are a cluster of islands near the mainland. Most of the developed area of the city has been on Way Key since the end of the 19th ...
. South of
Florida City Florida City is a city in Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States. It is the southernmost municipality in the South Florida metropolitan area. Florida City is primarily a Miami suburb and a major agricultural area. As of the 2020 census, it h ...
, a -stretch of railway roadbed required repairs due to storm damage. An estimated 20–30 percent of oranges and half of grapefruits in Lee County were damaged. Collier had the highest damage toll of any Florida county, sustaining $295,000 in damage. Loss of timber accounted for $150,000 of the total. However, losses sustained by fruit crops in Dade County were ultimately greater, reaching $1.5 million according to monthly records maintained by the
National Centers for Environmental Information The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), an agency of the United States government, manages one of the world's largest archives of atmospheric, coastal, geophysical, and oceanic data, containing information that ranges from th ...
. At least five tornadoes occurred in the hurricane's
rainband A rainband is a cloud and precipitation structure associated with an area of rainfall which is significantly elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or convective, and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather radar ima ...
s between Miami and Stuart, moving southeast to northwest with the storm's circulation. These were among the first verified reports of tornadoes occurring within a hurricane. Most of the tornadoes were short-lived and were limited to the coast, producing marginal damage. One tornado struck
Fort Lauderdale A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
, taking a long and wide path through the city's business center. Frame homes and garages were destroyed. Much of the roof and parapet of a 4-story concrete hotel was torn away by the twister. The tornado lifted within a minute of touching down and produced the severest impacts from the hurricane in Fort Lauderdale, inflicting $100,000 in damage and injuring 16 people. Gusts of accompanied the hurricane's landfall on the Florida panhandle, with winds near hurricane-force extending west to Pensacola where a peak gust of was recorded. The damage in Pensacola was estimated at $60,000. Docks and small craft were damaged, while trees and telegraph lines were downed. ''
Citrus unshiu ''Citrus unshiu'' is a semi-seedless and easy-peeling citrus species, also known as miyagawa mandarin, unshu mikan, cold hardy mandarin, satsuma mandarin, satsuma orange, naartjie, and tangerine. ''Citrus unshiu'' was named after Unshu (Wenzho ...
'' pine trees saw significant impacts. Along the Apalachicola waterfront, the storm surge destroyed nearly all wharves and damaged all coastal fish and oyster storehouses and canning plants. The surge inundated low-lying portions of the city, flooding additional inland warehouses. Parts of a newly built coastal highway west of Apalachicola were washed out by the waves. Panama City incurred $100,000–$150,000 in damage from destroyed wharves and fish storehouses. Apalachicola incurred a $66,000 damage toll, primarily to shipping.


Eastern U.S.

In
Alabama (We dare defend our rights) , anthem = "Alabama (state song), Alabama" , image_map = Alabama in United States.svg , seat = Montgomery, Alabama, Montgomery , LargestCity = Huntsville, Alabama, Huntsville , LargestCounty = Baldwin County, Al ...
, the damage was generally minor but most pronounced to crops. Coastal damage amounted to $1,800 excluding crop losses. The winds caused some damage to roofs and blew down fences. ''Citrus unshiu'' branches bearing fruit were torn from trees. Pecans suffered the same fate, though their quality remained at market-grade. While most cotton in Alabama's southeastern counties had already been harvested, extensive damage was wrought to the remaining crops. Crops and property sustained considerable damage along the central and southern U.S. Atlantic coasts. The storm supplied a continuous stream of moisture and rainfall into the region from September 20 to October 1, causing rivers to flood their banks. The first part of this heavy rainfall event was attributed to a
convergence zone A convergence zone in meteorology is a region in the atmosphere where two prevailing flows meet and interact, usually resulting in distinctive weather conditions. This causes a mass accumulation that eventually leads to a vertical movement and ...
that remained over the southeastern U.S. from September 23–28, repeatedly drawing moisture from the hurricane. Rains between September 30–October 1 was associated with the interaction of tropical moisture and an eastward-moving
cold front A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air at ground level that replaces a warmer mass of air and lies within a pronounced surface trough of low pressure. It often forms behind an extratropical cyclone (to the west in the Norther ...
over the Southeastern U.S. The maximum rainfall total during the entire event was in
Glennville, Georgia Glennville is a city in Tattnall County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 3,834. Geography Glennville is located at (31.939206, -81.926866). It is 29.3 miles from Baxley, Georgia. According to the Un ...
. Flooding in
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...
occurred in two episodes, with one on September 25 and the other from October 1–2. Two people were killed in the state. Flooding was widespread in Georgia's Lower Coastal Plain. Crops, especially cotton and corn, suffered a heavy blow in this region. The floods blocked highways and
washed out Ernest Weatherly Greene Jr. (born October 3, 1982), known professionally as Washed Out, is an American singer, songwriter and record producer. Commonly associated with the chillwave genre in the 2010s, Pitchfork dubbed him "the godfather of chil ...
railroads. One train engineer was killed after his train fell into a washout along the
Central of Georgia Railway The Central of Georgia Railway started as the Central Rail Road and Canal Company in 1833. As a way to better attract investment capital, the railroad changed its name to Central Rail Road and Banking Company of Georgia. This railroad was cons ...
between
Almira ''Almira, Königin von Castilien'' ("Almira, Queen of Castile", HWV 1; full title: ''Der in Krohnen erlangte Glücks-Wechsel, oder: Almira, Königin von Castilien'') is George Frideric Handel's first opera, composed when he was 19 years old. It ...
and Davisboro. The
Savannah River The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the norther ...
was subject to a record flood. An average of of rain fell across its watershed in 34 hours. At Augusta, the river set a record
river stage A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of wate ...
of on September 27. At this point, the river flow rate was also a record per second, 37 times greater than the river's flow rate at the onset of the rains. While most of Augusta was protected by a levee, a break south of the city led to the inundation of several streets and 40 city blocks to a depth of around . In lower areas the flooding was up to deep. The break occurred as the river was descending from its crest, lessening the potential damage; the flooding was relieved further by the opening of flood gates at Butlers Creek and a secondary levee breach nearby. Most homes in the flood zone were elevated and avoided significant damage. With the onset of the second episode of floods towards the beginning of October, police and fire departments ordered the evacuation of residents in low-lying areas, fearing that the earlier floods had significantly weakened flood mitigation systems. A crew of conscripts and volunteers was assembled to fortify the levees, successfully repairing broken segments before the Savannah River's second crest. Manufacturing and oil plants in low-lying areas north of Augusta were damaged by the floods. Much of the floodplain towards
South Carolina )''Animis opibusque parati'' ( for, , Latin, Prepared in mind and resources, links=no) , anthem = " Carolina";" South Carolina On My Mind" , Former = Province of South Carolina , seat = Columbia , LargestCity = Charleston , LargestMetro = ...
was submerged by the swollen Savannah. Farms suffered a total loss of crops and farm equipment. Numerous heads of cattle, hogs, and mules drowned. The total cost of damage within a radius of Augusta was estimated at over $1 million, with $275,000 in damage in the city proper. In Columbia County, located north of Augusta, agricultural losses exceeded $200,000. Floods classified as "dangerous" by the Weather Bureau occurred along the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Oconee rivers; more moderate floods befell areas along the Aplachicola,
Chattahoochee The Chattahoochee River forms the southern half of the Alabama and Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia border, as well as a portion of the Florida - Georgia border. It is a tributary of the Apalachicola River, a relatively short river formed by the con ...
, and
Flint Flint, occasionally flintstone, is a sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as the variety of chert that occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Flint was widely used historically to make stone tools and start fir ...
rivers. Total losses in the Altamaha River basin amounted to $500,000. In the southwestern part of Georgia, damage from the storm was primarily wind-driven, and many pecans were blown from trees. A conservative estimate from the Weather Bureau appraised damage to agriculture, highways, and railroads at $3 million. Flood damage in South Carolina from heavy rains on September 26–27 were exacerbated by additional rains associated with the hurricane on September 30 and October 1. Heavy rains and strong winds swept across the
Piedmont it, Piemontese , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , demographics1_title2 ...
. The entire state recorded above-average rainfall for October due in part to the hurricane. In
Hamburg (male), (female) en, Hamburger(s), Hamburgian(s) , timezone1 = Central (CET) , utc_offset1 = +1 , timezone1_DST = Central (CEST) , utc_offset1_DST = +2 , postal ...
, which lies across the Savannah River opposite Augusta, Georgia, many homes were swept away by floodwaters. Eight dams were breached in the
Horse Creek Valley Horse Creek Valley is a geographic area along Horse Creek, a tributary of the Savannah River. It lies within present-day Aiken County, South Carolina (prior to 1872, in Edgefield District / Edgefield County). The area is alternately referred to a ...
. Damage in the
Santee River } The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, and is long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage for the coastal areas of southeastern South Carolina and navigation for the central coastal plain of ...
watershed totaled $1.1 million, with most due to property damage; $160,000 in property damage was estimated to have been mitigated by timely flood warnings. Total losses in South Carolina from flooding associated with the storm reached $3.829 million, of which $1.8 million was inflicted upon crops. Farming operations in South Carolina's northern and western counties were suspended across both uplands and lowlands. The
Cape Fear River The Cape Fear River is a long blackwater river in east central North Carolina. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Cape Fear, from which it takes its name. The river is formed at the confluence of the Haw River and the Deep River (North Carol ...
in
North Carolina North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...
experienced its third highest flood on record, leading to $800,000 in losses. However, further losses were avoided as crops were already partly harvested. Areas downstream were also afforded clear conditions during which crops and other stocks were moved to safety as the bulge of floodwaters flowed downstream. October 1929 became the North Carolina's rainiest October on record upon its conclusion. In
Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...
, highways and bridges were damaged by flooded streams.
Southside Southside or South Side may refer to: Places Australia * Southside, Queensland, a semi-rural locality in the Gympie Region Canada * South Side, Newfoundland and Labrador, a community in the St. George's Bay area on the southwest coast of New ...
and
Southwest Virginia Southwest Virginia, often abbreviated as SWVA, is a mountainous region of Virginia in the westernmost part of the commonwealth. Located within the broader region of western Virginia, Southwest Virginia has been defined alternatively as all Vir ...
were the parts of the state most heavily impacted. High surf and damaging winds spread northward to the Mid-Atlantic states and
New England New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
, causing heavy damage. Trees were blown down in
The Berkshires The Berkshires () are a highland geologic region located in the western parts of Massachusetts and northwest Connecticut. The term "Berkshires" is normally used by locals in reference to the portion of the Vermont-based Green Mountains that ex ...
by strong winds enhanced by the local topography. In
Maine Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and north ...
, heavy rains up to flooded storm cellars and broke a prolonged dry spell in the state, though damage was minimal.


Canada

The extratropical remnants of the hurricane exhibited winds of 40 mph (65 km/h) as they passed over
New Brunswick New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
and
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
. Heavy rainfall and flooding were reported in New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia Nova Scotia ( ; ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. Nova Scotia is Latin for "New Scotland". Most of the population are native Eng ...
. A peak rainfall total of 3.8 in (95 mm) was measured in
Saint John, New Brunswick Saint John is a seaport city of the Atlantic Ocean located on the Bay of Fundy in the province of New Brunswick, Canada. Saint John is the oldest incorporated city in Canada, established by royal charter on May 18, 1785, during the reign of Ki ...
. Cellars and streets in the Saint John area had flood depths of . Streets were flooded and damaged in Digby and
Truro, Nova Scotia Truro (Mi'kmaq: ''Wagobagitik''; Scottish Gaelic: ''Truru'') is a town in central Nova Scotia, Canada. Truro is the shire town of Colchester County and is located on the south side of the Salmon River floodplain, close to the river's mouth at ...
.


See also

*
1926 Nassau hurricane The 1926 Nassau hurricane also known as the San Liborio hurricane or The Great Bahamas Hurricane of 1926, in Puerto Rico, was a destructive Category 4 hurricane that affected the Bahamas at peak intensity. Although it weakened considerably befor ...
 – passed directly over Nassau at a similar intensity *
Hurricane Betsy Hurricane Betsy was an intense and destructive tropical cyclone that brought widespread damage to areas of Florida and the central United States Gulf Coast in September 1965. The storm's erratic nature, coupled with its intensity and minim ...
 – took a similar southwestward path through the Bahamas and Florida Keys *
Hurricane Dorian Hurricane Dorian was an extremely powerful and catastrophic Category 5 Atlantic hurricane, which became the most intense tropical cyclone on record to strike the Bahamas, and tied for strongest landfall in the Atlantic basin. It is also reg ...
 – slow-moving Category 5 hurricane that caused catastrophic damage on Grand Bahama and Great Abaco islands


Notes


References

;Sources * * * * * * * ;Citations


External links


1929 Hurricane best track data
{{DEFAULTSORT:1929 Florida Hurricane * 1929 Bahamas 1929 Bahamas 1929 Bahamas Bahamas Hurricane, 1929 1929 in Florida 1929 natural disasters in the United States 1929 meteorology