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Gha is the fourth consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, gha is derived from the early "
Ashoka Ashoka (, ; also ''Asoka''; 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Maurya Empire of Indian subcontinent during to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, ...
" Brahmi letter , which is probably derived from the Aramaic ("H/X") after having gone through the
Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...
letter .


Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata Aryabhata (ISO: ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer of the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. He flourished in the Gupta Era and produced works such as the ''Aryabhatiya'' (which ...
used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the
Greek numerals Greek numerals, also known as Ionic, Ionian, Milesian, or Alexandrian numerals, are a system of writing numbers using the letters of the Greek alphabet. In modern Greece, they are still used for ordinal numbers and in contexts similar to tho ...
, even after the invention of
Indian numerals Indian or Indians may refer to: Peoples South Asia * Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor ** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country * South Asia ...
. The values of the different forms of घ are: *घ = 4 (४) *घि = 400 (४००) *घु = 40,000 (४० ०००) *घृ = 4,000,000 (४० ०० ०००) *घॢ = 4 (४०) *घे = 4 (४०१०) *घै = 4 (४०१२) *घो = 4 (४०१४) *घौ = 4 (४०१६)


Historic Gha

There are three different general early historic scripts -
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
and its variants,
Kharoṣṭhī The Kharoṣṭhī script, also spelled Kharoshthi (Kharosthi: ), was an ancient Indo-Iranian script used by various Aryan peoples in north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely around present-day northern Pakistan and e ...
, and Tocharian, the so-called ''slanting Brahmi''. Gha as found in standard
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
, was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta . The Tocharian Gha did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of gha, in Kharoshthi ( 15px, Gha) was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.


Brahmi Gha

The Brahmi letter , Gha, is probably derived from the Aramaic
Heth Heth, sometimes written Chet, but more accurately Ḥet, is the eighth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ḥēt 𐤇 , Hebrew Ḥēth , Aramaic Ḥēth , Syriac Ḥēṯ ܚ, Arabic Ḥā' , and Maltese Ħ, ħ. Heth originall ...
, and is thus related to the modern Latin H and Greek
Eta Eta (uppercase , lowercase ; grc, ἦτα ''ē̂ta'' or ell, ήτα ''ita'' ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the close front unrounded vowel . Originally denoting the voiceless glottal fricative in most dialects, ...
. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Gha can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period. As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the
Edicts of Ashoka The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire who reigned from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka used the expres ...
and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.


Tocharian Gha

The Tocharian letter is derived from the Brahmi , but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.


Kharoṣṭhī Gha

The Kharoṣṭhī letter 15px, Gha is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic
Heth Heth, sometimes written Chet, but more accurately Ḥet, is the eighth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ḥēt 𐤇 , Hebrew Ḥēth , Aramaic Ḥēth , Syriac Ḥēṯ ܚ, Arabic Ḥā' , and Maltese Ħ, ħ. Heth originall ...
, and is thus related to H and
Eta Eta (uppercase , lowercase ; grc, ἦτα ''ē̂ta'' or ell, ήτα ''ita'' ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the close front unrounded vowel . Originally denoting the voiceless glottal fricative in most dialects, ...
, in addition to the Brahmi Gha.


Devanagari script

Gha (घ) is the fourth consonant of the
Devanagari Devanagari ( ; , , Sanskrit pronunciation: ), also called Nagari (),Kathleen Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, , page 83 is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental syste ...
abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...
. It ultimately arose from the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
letter , after having gone through the
Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...
letter . Letters that derive from it are the
Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub- ...
letter ઘ and the
Modi Narendra Damodardas Modi (; born 17 September 1950) is an Indian politician serving as the 14th and current Prime Minister of India since 2014. Modi was the Chief Minister of Gujarat from 2001 to 2014 and is the Member of Parliament from ...
letter 𑘑.


Devanagari-using Languages

In all languages, घ is pronounced as or when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:


Conjuncts with घ

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with
Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...
in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.


Ligature conjuncts of घ

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and
Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...
texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form for an initial "R" instead of repha. * Repha र্ (r) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature rɡʱa: * Eyelash र্ (r) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature rɡʱa: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature ɡʱra: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + न (na) gives the ligature ɡʱna: * द্ (d) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature dɡʱa:


Stacked conjuncts of घ

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature. * छ্ (cʰ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature cʰɡʱa: * ढ্ (ḍʱ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ḍʱɡʱa: * ड্ (ḍ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ḍɡʱa: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ɡʱca: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature ɡʱḍa: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ज (ja) gives the ligature ɡʱja: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature ɡʱjña: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ल (la) gives the ligature ɡʱla: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature ɡʱŋa: * घ্ (ɡʱ) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature ɡʱña: * ङ্ (ŋ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ŋɡʱa: * ट্ (ṭ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ṭɡʱa: * ठ্ (ṭʰ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ṭʰɡʱa:


Bengali script

The Bengali script ঘ is derived from the Siddhaṃ , and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, घ. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter ঘ will sometimes be transliterated as "gho" instead of "gha". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /ɡʱo/. Like all Indic consonants, ঘ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".


ঘ in Bengali-using languages

ঘ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including
Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
and Assamese.


Conjuncts with ঘ

Bengali ঘ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts, with both stacked ligatures being common. * দ্ (d) + ঘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature dɡʱa: * ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + ন (na) gives the ligature ɡʱna: * ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ɡʱra, with the
ra phala Ra is a consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, Ra is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter after having gone through the Gupta script, Gupta letter . Most Indic scripts have differing forms of Ra when used in combination ...
suffix: * ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature ɡʱya, with the ya phala suffix: * ঙ্ (ŋ) + ঘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ŋɡʱa: * ঙ্ (ŋ) + ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ŋɡʱra, with the ra phala suffix: * ঙ্ (ŋ) + ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature ŋɡʱya, with the ya phala suffix: * র্ (r) + ঘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature rɡʱa, with the repha prefix: * র্ (r) + ঘ্ (ɡʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature rɡʱya, with the repha prefix and ya phala suffix:


Gurmukhi script

Kagaa (ਘ) is the ninth letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is ʰəkʰːɑand pronounced as /kə̀/. To differentiate between consonants, the Punjabi tonal consonant kà is often transliterated in the way of the Hindi voiced aspirate consonants gha although Punjabi does not have this sound. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter ''gha'', and ultimately from the Brahmi ''ga''. Gurmukhi kagaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /k/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.


Gujarati Gha

Gha (ઘ) is the fourth consonant of the
Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub- ...
abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...
. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Gha with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
letter . ઘ (Gha) is similar in appearance to ધ (
Dha DHA, Dha and dha may refer to: Chemicals * Docosahexaenoic acid, a 22:6 omega-3 fatty acid * Dehydroandrosterone, an endogenous androgenic steroid * Dehydroascorbic acid, an oxidized form of ascorbic acid * Dehydroacetic acid, a pyrone derivati ...
), and care should be taken to avoid confusing the two when reading Gujarati script texts.


Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the
Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub- ...
and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ઘ is pronounced as or when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:


Conjuncts with ઘ

Gujarati ઘ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. * ર્ (r) + ઘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature RGha: * ઘ્ (ɡʱ) + ર (ra) gives the ligature GhRa: * ઘ્ (ɡʱ) + ન (na) gives the ligature GhNa: * દ્ (d) + ઘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature DGha:


Telugu Gha

Gha (ఘ) is a consonant of the
Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...
abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...
. It ultimately arose from the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
letter . It is closely related to the
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
letter ಘ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
) in the KṢa conjunct.


Malayalam Gha

Gha (ഘ) is a consonant of the
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...
. It ultimately arose from the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
letter , via the Grantha letter ''Gha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.


Conjuncts of ഘ

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, ''put̪iya lipi'', may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in ''paḻaya lipi'', due to
changes Changes may refer to: Books * ''Changes'', the 12th novel in Jim Butcher's ''The Dresden Files'' Series * ''Changes'', a novel by Danielle Steel * ''Changes'', a trilogy of novels on which the BBC TV series was based, written by Peter Dickinson ...
undertaken in the 1970s by the
Government of Kerala Government of Kerala is the subnational government of the Indian state of Kerala. The government is led by a chief minister, who selects all the other ministers. The chief minister and their most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision ...
. * ഗ് (g) + ഘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature gɡʱa: * ഘ് (ɡʱ) + ന (na) gives the ligature ɡʱna: * ഘ് (ɡʱ) + ര (ra) gives the ligature ɡʱra:


Thai script

Kho ra-khang (ฆ) is the sixth letter of the
Thai alphabet The Thai script ( th, อักษรไทย, ) is the abugida used to write Thai, Southern Thai and many other languages spoken in Thailand. The Thai alphabet itself (as used to write Thai) has 44 consonant symbols ( th, พยัญชน ...
. It falls under the low class of Thai consonants. In
IPA IPA commonly refers to: * India pale ale, a style of beer * International Phonetic Alphabet, a system of phonetic notation * Isopropyl alcohol, a chemical compound IPA may also refer to: Organizations International * Insolvency Practitioners ...
, kho ra-khang is pronounced as ʰat the beginning of a syllable and is pronounced as ̚at the end of a syllable. The second and third letters of the alphabet, ''kho khai'' (ข) and ''kho khuat'' (ฃ), are also named ''kho'', however, they all fall under the high class of Thai consonants. The fourth and the fifth letters of the alphabet, ''kho khwai'' (ค), ''kho khon'' (ฅ), and ''kho ra-khang'' (ฆ), are also named ''kho ''and fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthu''—''an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, ''ra-khang'' (ระฆัง) means ‘bell’. ''Kho ra-khang'' corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘घ’.


Odia Gha

Gha (ଘ) is a consonant of the
Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...
abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...
. It ultimately arose from the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter ''Gha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.


Conjuncts of ଘ

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters. * ଙ୍ (ŋ) + ଘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature ŋɡʱa: * ର୍ (r) + ଘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature rɡʱa: * ଘ୍ (ɡʱ) + ର (ra) gives the ligature ɡʱra:


Comparison of Gha

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Gha, are related as well.


Character encodings of Gha

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the
Unicode Standard Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the world's writing systems. The standard, whic ...
, and as such the letter Gha in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Gha from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as
ISCII Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII) is a coding scheme for representing various writing systems of India. It encodes the main Indic scripts and a Roman transliteration. The supported scripts are: Bengali–Assamese, Devanagari ...
.


See also

*
Heth Heth, sometimes written Chet, but more accurately Ḥet, is the eighth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ḥēt 𐤇 , Hebrew Ḥēth , Aramaic Ḥēth , Syriac Ḥēṯ ܚ, Arabic Ḥā' , and Maltese Ħ, ħ. Heth originall ...


References

* Kurt Elfering: ''Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar''. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, * Georges Ifrah: ''The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer''. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, . * B. L. van der Waerden: ''Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik''. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, * * :: Conjuncts are identified by
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś". {{Devanagari_abugida Indic letters