zellij

''Zellij'' ( ar, الزليج, translit=zillīj; also spelled zillij or zellige) is a style of mosaic tilework made from individually hand-chiseled tile pieces. The pieces were typically of different colours and fitted together to form various patterns on the basis of tessellations, most notably elaborate Islamic geometric motifs such as radiating star patterns. This form of Islamic art is one of the main characteristics of architecture in the western Islamic world. It is found in the architecture of Morocco, the architecture of Algeria, early Islamic sites in Tunisia, and in the historic monuments of al-Andalus (in the Iberian Peninsula). From the 14th century onwards, ''zellij'' became a standard decorative element along lower walls, in fountains and pools, on minarets, and for the paving of floors.

After the 15th century the traditional mosaic ''zellij'' fell out of fashion in most countries except for Morocco, where it continues to be produced today. ''Zellij'' is found in modern buildings making use of traditional designs such as the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca which adds a new color palette with traditional designs. The influence of ''zellij'' patterns was also evident in Spanish tiles produced during the Renaissance period and is seen in some modern imitations painted on square tiles.

Name

The word ''zillīj'' () is derived from the verb ''zalaja'' () meaning "to slide," in reference to the smooth, glazed surface of the tiles. The word ''azulejo'' in Portuguese and Spanish, referring to a style of painted tile in Portugal and Spain, derives from the word ''zillīj.'' In Spain, the mosaic tile technique used in historic Islamic monuments like the Alhambra is also referred to as ''alicatado'', a Spanish word deriving from the Arabic verb ''qata'a'' () meaning "to cut".

History

Origins (10th to 13th centuries)

''Zellij'' fragments from al-Mansuriyya (Sabra) in Tunisia, possibly dating from either the mid-10th century Fatimid foundation or from the mid-11th Zirid occupation, suggest that the technique may have developed in the western Islamic world around this period. Georges Marçais argued that these fragments, along with similar decoration found at Mahdia, indicate that the technique likely originated in Ifriqiya and was subsequently exported further west. It was probably inspired or derived from Byzantine mosaics and then adapted by Muslim craftsmen for faience tiles. By the 11th century, the ''zellij'' technique had reached a sophisticated level in the western Islamic world, as attested in the elaborate pavements found at Qal'at Bani Hammad in Algeria.

During the Almohad period, prominent bands of ceramic decoration in green and white were already features on the minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque and the Kasbah Mosque of Marrakesh. Relatively simple in design, they may have reflected artistic influences from Sanhaja Berber culture. Jonathan Bloom cites the glazed tiles on the minaret of the Kutubiyya Mosque, dating from the mid-12th century, as the earliest reliably-dated example of ''zellij'' in Morocco. The individual tile pieces are large, allowing the pattern to be visible from afar. Each piece was pierced with a small hole prior to being baked so that the tiles could be affixed by nails to a wooden frame set into a mortar surface on this part of the minaret. The minaret of the Kasbah Mosque, built slightly later in the 1190s, makes greater use of ceramic decoration generally, including geometric mosaics on the upper parts of the minaret in the same technique as those of the Kutubiyya (though slightly more varied in design). The tiles on both minarets today are modern reproductions of the originals, of which fragments have been preserved in the reserve collection of the Badi Palace museum.

Generalization across the region (14th to 15th centuries)

The more complex ''zellij'' style that we know today became widespread during the first half of the 14th century under the Marinid, Nasrid, and Zayyanid dynastic periods in Morocco, Algeria, and al-Andalus. Due to the significant cultural unity and relations between al-Andalus and the western Maghreb, the forms of ''zellij'' under Marinid, Nasrid, and Zayyanid patronage are extremely similar. In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), under the Hafsid dynasty, ''zellij'' tiling largely fell out of style during this same period and was replaced by a preference for stone and marble paneling.

''Zellij'' tiling was most typically used to pave floors and to cover the lower walls inside buildings. ''Zellij'' was also used on the exterior of minarets and on some entrance portals. Geometric motifs predominated, with patterns of increasing complexity being formed during this period. Less frequently, vegetal or floral arabesque motifs were also created. On walls, ''zellij'' geometric dadoes were commonly topped by an epigraphic frieze. By this period, more colours were employed such as yellow (using iron oxides or chrome yellow), blues, and a dark brown manganese colour. This style of tile mosaic, formed by assembling a large number of small hand-cut pieces to form a pattern, is evident in famous buildings of the period such as the Alhambra palaces of the Nasrids, the mosques of Tlemcen, and the Marinid madrasas of Fez, Meknes, and Salé. It is also found in some Christian Spanish palaces of the same period who employed Muslim or Mudéjar craftsmen, most notably the Alcazar of Seville, whose 14th-century sections are contemporary with the Alhambra and contain ''zellij'' tilework in the same style, although of slightly lesser sophistication. Among the most exceptional surviving examples of Nasrid ''zellij'' art are the dadoes of the '' Mirador de Lindaraja'' and the ''Torre de la Cautiva'' in the Alhambra, both from the 14th century. Whereas Arabic epigraphy was usually carved in stucco or painted on larger square tiles, these two examples contain very fine Arabic inscriptions in Naskhi script that are made from the assembly of coloured tile pieces cut in the form of the letters themselves and set into a white background. The tiles of the ''Torre de la Cautiva'' are further distinguished by the use of a purple colour which is unique in architectural ''zellij'' decoration. The dado of the ''Mirador of Lindaraja'' also contains a particularly advanced geometric composition with very fine mosaic pieces below the level of the inscription. Some of the tile pieces in this composition measure as little as 2 millimeters in width.

In addition to ''zellij'' work further west, a somewhat distinctive style of ''zellij'' with brightly coloured pieces, often in floral patterns of palmettes and scrollwork, developed among the craftsmen of Tlemcen. The most important early example of this style was the decoration of the Tashfiniya Madrasa (no longer extant), founded by Abu Tashfin I (r. 1318–1337). This type subsequently appeared in later monuments of this era, mainly in Tlemcen (such as the Mosque and madrasa of Abu Madyan) but also further afield in the Marinid madrasa of Chellah, suggesting that the same workshop of craftsmen may have been employed by the Marinids around this time. The use of ''zellij'' decoration on entrance portals, otherwise not common in the rest of the Maghreb, was also most characteristic of the architecture of Tlemcen. Today, the archaeological museum of Tlemcen contains many remains of panels and fragments of ''zellij'' from various medieval monuments dating back to the Zayyanid dynasty.

The epigraphic friezes in Marinid tilework, which typically topped the main mosaic dadoes, were made through a different technique known more widely as ''sgraffito'' (from the Italian word for "scratched"). In this technique, square panels were glazed in a black colour and the glaze was then chipped away around the desired motif, leaving the Arabic inscription and other decorative flourishes in black relief against a bare earth ground. Occasionally the earth background is covered with a white coating, and on some occasions a green glaze is used instead of black in order to leave a green motif in relief. An example of the latter is seen on the ceramic decoration of the minaret of the Bou Inania Madrasa in Fez (1350–1355), within the sunken spaces of the '' sebka'' motif.

Later history (16th century and after)

In the 16th century most of North Africa came under Ottoman rule. In Algeria, the indigenous ''zellij'' style was mostly supplanted by small square tiles imported from Europe – especially from Italy, Spain, and Delft – and sometimes from Tunis. Some examples of more traditional mosaic tiles found in this late period may have continued to be produced in Tlemcen. In Tunisia, another style of tile decoration, Qallaline tiles, became common during the 18th century and was produced locally. It consisted of square panels of fixed size, painted with scenes and flowers, in a technique similar to Italian maiolica rather than to the earlier mosaic technique.

In Spain, where former Muslim-controlled territories had come under Christian rule, new techniques of tilemaking developed. As wealthy Spaniards favoured the Mudéjar style to decorate their residences, the demand for mosaic tilework in this style increased beyond what tilemakers could produce, requiring them to consider new methods. Towards the late 15th and early 16th centuries Seville became an important production center for a type of tile known as ''cuenca'' ("hollow") or ''arista'' ("ridge"). In this technique, motifs were formed by pressing a metal or wooden mould over the unbaked tile, leaving a motif delineated by thin ridges of clay that prevented the different colours in between from bleeding into each other during baking. This was similar to the older ''cuerda seca

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