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Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal video and/or thermal imaging, is a process where a thermal camera captures and creates an image of an object by using infrared radiation emitted from the object in a process, which are examples of infrared
imaging science Imaging is the representation or reproduction of an object's form; especially a visual representation (i.e., the formation of an image). Imaging technology is the application of materials and methods to create, preserve, or duplicate images. ...
. Thermographic cameras usually detect radiation in the long- infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies. The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from b ...
(roughly 9,000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14
μm The micrometre ( international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: μm) or micrometer ( American spelling), also commonly known as a micron, is a unit of length in the International System of Uni ...
) and produce images of that radiation, called thermograms. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects with a temperature above absolute zero according to the
black body A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs all colors of light. A black body ...
radiation law, thermography makes it possible to see one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature; therefore, thermography allows one to see variations in temperature. When viewed through a thermal imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler backgrounds; humans and other
warm-blooded Warm-blooded is an informal term referring to animal species which can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment. In particular, homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes. The onl ...
animals become easily visible against the environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to the military and other users of surveillance cameras. Some physiological changes in human beings and other warm-blooded animals can also be monitored with thermal imaging during clinical diagnostics. Thermography is used in allergy detection and veterinary medicine. Some
alternative medicine Alternative medicine is any practice that aims to achieve the healing effects of medicine despite lacking biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or evidence from clinical trials. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alt ...
practitioners promote its use for
breast screening Mammography (also called mastography) is the process of using low-energy X-rays (usually around 30 kVp) to examine the human breast for diagnosis and screening. The goal of mammography is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through d ...
, despite the FDA warning that "those who opt for this method instead of mammography may miss the chance to detect cancer at its earliest stage". Government and airport personnel used thermography to detect suspected swine flu cases during the 2009 pandemic. Thermography has a long history, although its use has increased dramatically with the commercial and industrial applications of the past fifty years.
Firefighter A firefighter is a first responder and rescuer extensively trained in firefighting, primarily to extinguish hazardous fires that threaten life, property, and the environment as well as to rescue people and in some cases or jurisdictions also ...
s use thermography to see through
smoke Smoke is a suspension of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-produ ...
, to find persons, and to localize the base of a fire. Maintenance technicians use thermography to locate overheating joints and sections of
power line An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power transmission and distribution to transmit electrical energy across large distances. It consists of one or more uninsulated electrical cables (commonly multiples of three for three-p ...
s, which are a sign of impending failure.
Building construction Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations,"Construction" def. 1.a. 1.b. and 1.c. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009 and com ...
technicians can see thermal signatures that indicate heat leaks in faulty thermal insulation and can use the results to improve the efficiency of heating and air-conditioning units. The appearance and operation of a modern thermographic camera is often similar to a
camcorder A camcorder is a self-contained portable electronic device with video and recording as its primary function. It is typically equipped with an articulating screen mounted on the left side, a belt to facilitate holding on the right side, hot-swa ...
. Often the live thermogram reveals temperature variations so clearly that a photograph is not necessary for analysis. A recording module is therefore not always built-in. Specialized thermal imaging cameras use focal plane arrays (FPAs) that respond to longer wavelengths (mid- and long-wavelength infrared). The most common types are InSb, InGaAs, HgCdTe and QWIP FPA. The newest technologies use low-cost, uncooled microbolometers as FPA sensors. Their resolution is considerably lower than that of optical cameras, mostly 160x120 or 320x240 pixels, up to 1280 x 1024FLIR x8500sc Thermal imaging camera specifications
Retrieved on 2019-07-10.
for the most expensive models. Thermal imaging cameras are much more expensive than their visible-spectrum counterparts, and higher-end models are often export-restricted due to the military uses for this technology. Older
bolometer A bolometer is a device for measuring radiant heat by means of a material having a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. It was invented in 1878 by the American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley. Principle of operation A bolometer ...
s or more sensitive models such as InSb require
cryogenic In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures. The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of “cryogenics” and “cr ...
cooling, usually by a miniature Stirling cycle refrigerator or
liquid nitrogen Liquid nitrogen—LN2—is nitrogen in a liquid state at low temperature. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of about . It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is a colorless, low viscosity liquid that is wide ...
.


Thermal energy

Thermal images, or thermograms, are actually visual displays of the amount of infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this method. A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing algorithms to interpret that data and build an image. Although the image shows the viewer an approximation of the temperature at which the object is operating, the camera is actually using multiple sources of data based on the areas surrounding the object to determine that value rather than detecting the actual temperature. This phenomenon may become clearer upon consideration of the formula: :Incident Radiant Power = Emitted Radiant Power + Transmitted Radiant Power + Reflected Radiant Power; where incident radiant power is the radiant power profile when viewed through a thermal imaging camera. Emitted radiant power is generally what is intended to be measured; transmitted radiant power is the radiant power that passes through the subject from a remote thermal source, and; reflected radiant power is the amount of radiant power that reflects off the surface of the object from a remote thermal source. This phenomenon occurs everywhere, all the time. It is a process known as radiant heat exchange, since radiant power × time equals radiant energy. However, in the case of infrared thermography, the above equation is used to describe the radiant power within the spectral wavelength passband of the thermal imaging camera in use. The radiant heat exchange requirements described in the equation apply equally at every wavelength in the
electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies. The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from b ...
. If the object is radiating at a higher temperature than its surroundings, then
power transfer Energy transformation, also known as energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one form to another. In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to perform work or moving, (e.g. Lifting an object) or provides heat. ...
will be taking place and power will be radiating from warm to cold following the principle stated in the second law of thermodynamics. So if there is a cool area in the thermogram, that object will be absorbing the radiation emitted by the warm object. The ability of objects to emit is called '' emissivity'', to absorb radiation is called '' absorptivity''. Under outdoor environments, convective cooling from wind may also need to be considered when trying to get an accurate temperature reading. The thermal imaging camera would next employ a series of mathematical algorithms. Since the camera is only able to see the electromagnetic radiation that is impossible to detect with the human eye, it will build a picture in the viewer and record a visible picture, usually in a
JPG JPEG ( ) is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between storage size and image ...
format. In order to perform the role of non-contact temperature recorder, the camera will change the temperature of the object being viewed with its emissivity setting. Other algorithms can be used to affect the measurement, including the transmission ability of the transmitting medium (usually air) and the temperature of that transmitting medium. All these settings will affect the ultimate output for the temperature of the object being viewed. This functionality makes the thermal imaging camera an excellent tool for the maintenance of electrical and mechanical systems in industry and commerce. By using the proper camera settings and by being careful when capturing the image, electrical systems can be scanned and problems can be found. Faults with steam traps in steam heating systems are easy to locate. In the energy savings area, the thermal imaging camera can do more. Because it can see the effective radiation temperature of an object as well as what that object is radiating towards, it can help locate sources of thermal leaks and overheated regions as well.


Emissivity

Emissivity is a term that is often misunderstood and misused. It represents a material's ability to emit thermal radiation and is an optical property of matter. Each material has a different emissivity, which may vary by temperature and infrared wavelength. For example, clean metal surfaces have emissivity that decreases at longer wavelengths; many dielectric materials, such as quartz (SiO2), sapphire (Al2O3), calcium fluoride (CaF2), etc. have emissivity that increases at longer wavelength; simple oxides, such as iron oxide (Fe2O3) display relatively flat emissivity in the infrared spectrum. A material's emissivity can range from a theoretical 0.00 (completely not-emitting) to an equally theoretical 1.00 (completely emitting). An example of a substance with low emissivity would be silver, with an emissivity coefficient of .02. An example of a substance with high emissivity would be asphalt, with an emissivity coefficient of .98. A
black body A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs all colors of light. A black body ...
is a theoretical object with an emissivity of 1 that radiates thermal radiation characteristic of its contact temperature. That is, if the contact temperature of a thermally uniform black body radiator were , the black body would emit thermal radiation characteristic of . An ordinary object emits less infrared radiation than a theoretical black body. The fraction of its actual emission to the theoretical emission (of the black body) is its emissivity (or emissivity coefficient). In order to make a
temperature measurement Temperature measurement (also known as thermometry) describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature tren ...
of an object using an infrared imager, it is necessary to estimate or determine the object's emissivity. For quick work, a thermographer may refer to an emissivity table for a given type of object, and enter that value into the imager. The imager would then calculate the object's contact temperature based on the value entered from the table and the object's emission of infrared radiation as detected by the imager. In order to get a more accurate temperature measurement, a thermographer may apply a standard material of known, high emissivity to the surface of the object. The standard material might be as complex as industrial emissivity spray produced specifically for the purpose, or as simple as standard black
insulation tape Electrical tape (or insulating tape) is a type of pressure-sensitive tape used to insulate electrical wires and other materials that conduct electricity. It can be made of many plastics, but PVC (polyvinyl chloride, "vinyl") is most popular, as ...
, with an emissivity of about 0.97. The object's known temperature can then be measured using the standard emissivity. If desired, the object's actual emissivity (on a part of the object that is not covered by the standard material) can then be determined by adjusting the imager's setting to the known temperature. There are situations, however, when such an emissivity test is not possible due to dangerous or inaccessible conditions. In these situations, the thermographer must rely on tables.


Difference from infrared film

IR film is sensitive to infrared (IR) radiation in the range, while the range of thermography is approximately . So, for an IR film to work thermographically, it must be over or be reflecting infrared radiation from something that is at least that hot. Night vision infrared devices image in the near-infrared, just beyond the visual spectrum, and can see emitted or reflected near-infrared in complete visual darkness. However, again, these are not usually used for thermography due to the high temperature requirements, but are instead used with active near-IR sources. Starlight-type night vision devices generally only magnify ambient light.


Passive vs. active thermography

All objects above the
absolute zero Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as zero kelvin. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibratio ...
temperature (0  K) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 μm) and long (7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem. In ''passive thermography'', the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature than the background. Passive thermography has many applications such as surveillance of people on a scene and
medical diagnosis Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx, Dx, or Ds) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and medical sign, signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medicine, medical context being implic ...
(specifically
thermology Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical thermology is sometimes referred ...
). In ''active thermography'', an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the feature of interest and the background. The active approach is necessary in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in equilibrium with the surroundings. Given the super-linearities of the
black-body radiation Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within, or surrounding, a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, emitted by a black body (an idealized opaque, non-reflective body). It has a specific, continuous spec ...
, ''active thermography'' can also be used to enhance the resolution of imaging systems beyond their diffraction limit or to achieve super-resolution microscopy.


Advantages

It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared. It is capable of catching moving targets in real time. It is able to find deterioration, i.e., higher temperature components prior to their failure. It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods. It is a non-destructive test method. It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes, and other metal or plastic parts. It can be used to detect objects in dark areas. It has some medical application, essentially in physiotherapy.


Limitations and disadvantages

There are various cameras cheaper and more expensive. Quality cameras often have a high price range (often US$3,000 or more) due to the expense of the larger pixel array (state of the art 1280 x 1024), while less expensive models (with pixel arrays of 40x40 up to 160x120 pixels) are also available. Fewer pixels reduce the image quality making it more difficult to distinguish proximate targets within the same field of view. There is also a difference in refresh rate. Some cameras may only have a refreshing value of 5 –15 Hz, other (e.g. FLIR X8500sc) 180 Hz or even more in no full window mode. Also the lens can be integrated or not. Many models do not provide the irradiance measurements used to construct the output image; the loss of this information without a correct calibration for emissivity, distance, and ambient temperature and relative humidity entails that the resultant images are inherently incorrect measurements of temperature. Images can be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects, specifically objects with erratic temperatures, although this problem is reduced in active thermal imaging. Thermographic cameras create thermal images based on the radiant heat energy it receives. As radiation levels are influenced by the emissivity and reflection of radiation such as sunlight from the surface being measured this causes errors in the measurements. * Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse in measurement of temperature and are not as accurate as contact methods. * Methods and instruments are limited to directly detecting surface temperatures.


Applications

*
Condition monitoring Condition monitoring (colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant change which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component o ...
* Low slope and flat roofing inspections * Building diagnostics including
building envelope inspections A building, or edifice, is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory (although there's also portable buildings). Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and func ...
,
moisture inspections Moisture is the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air (humidity), in foods, and in some commercial products. Moisture also refers to the amount of water vapo ...
, and energy losses in buildings * Thermal mapping *
Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical thermology is sometimes referred ...
*
Medical imaging Medical imaging is the technique and process of imaging the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology). Medical imaging seeks to rev ...
*
Non-contact thermography Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical thermology is sometimes referr ...
,
contact thermography Contact may refer to: Interaction Physical interaction * Contact (geology), a common geological feature * Contact lens or contact, a lens placed on the eye * Contact sport, a sport in which players make contact with other players or objects * C ...
and dynamic angiothermography * Peripheral vascular disease screening. * Carotid artery stenosis (CAS) screening through skin thermal maps. * Active Dynamic Thermography (ADT) for medical applications. * Neuromusculoskeletal disorders. * Extracranial cerebral and facial vascular disease. * Thyroid gland abnormalities. * Various other neoplastic, metabolic, and inflammatory conditions. * Archaeological kite aerial thermography *
Thermology Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical thermology is sometimes referred ...
* Veterinary Thermal Imaging * Thermal imaging in ornithology and other wildlife monitoring *
Night vision Night vision is the ability to see in low-light conditions, either naturally with scotopic vision or through a night-vision device. Night vision requires both sufficient spectral range and sufficient intensity range. Humans have poor night vi ...
and Targeting * UAV Surveillance *
Stereo vision Stereopsis () is the component of depth perception retrieved through binocular vision. Stereopsis is not the only contributor to depth perception, but it is a major one. Binocular vision happens because each eye receives a different image becaus ...
* Research * Process control *
Nondestructive testing Nondestructive testing (NDT) is any of a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. The terms nondestructive examination (NDE), n ...
* Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence *
Chemical imaging Chemical imaging (as quantitative – ''chemical mapping'') is the analytical capability to create a visual image of components distribution from simultaneous measurement of spectra and spatial, time information. Hyperspectral imaging measures cont ...
* Volcanology * Building Thermal imaging cameras convert the energy in the infrared wavelength into a visible light display. All objects above absolute zero emit thermal infrared energy, so thermal cameras can passively see all objects, regardless of ambient light. However, most thermal cameras only see objects warmer than . The spectrum and amount of thermal radiation depend strongly on an object's surface temperature. This makes it possible for a thermal imaging camera to display an object's temperature. However, other factors also influence the radiation, which limits the accuracy of this technique. For example, the radiation depends not only on the temperature of the object, but is also a function of the emissivity of the object. Also, radiation originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object, and the radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the
absorption Absorption may refer to: Chemistry and biology *Absorption (biology), digestion **Absorption (small intestine) *Absorption (chemistry), diffusion of particles of gas or liquid into liquid or solid materials *Absorption (skin), a route by which s ...
of the
atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A s ...
.


Standards

;
ASTM International ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is an international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, an ...
(ASTM) *ASTM C1060, ''Standard Practice for Thermographic Inspection of Insulation Installations in Envelope Cavities of Frame Buildings'' *ASTM C1153, ''Standard Practice for the Location of Wet Insulation in Roofing Systems Using Infrared Imaging'' *ATSM D4788, ''Standard Test Method for Detecting Delamination in Bridge Decks Using Infrared Thermography'' *ASTM E1186, ''Standard Practices for Air Leakage Site Detection in Building Envelopes and Air Barrier Systems'' *ASTM E1934, ''Standard Guide for Examining Electrical and Mechanical Equipment with Infrared Thermography'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspection of Electrical Systems and Rotating Equipment'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspection of Insulated Roofs'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspections to Detect Pests and Pest Related Damage'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspection of Installed Photovoltaic (PV) Systems'' *''Standard for Infrared Inspection of Recreational Yachts and Small Craft Constructed of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic and Composite Materials'' *''Standard for Infrared Thermal Imaging of Horses'' *''Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emittance Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers'' *''Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Reflected Temperature Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers'' *''Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers'' *''Standard for Measuring Distance/Target Size Values for Infrared Imaging Radiometers'' ; International Organization for Standardization (ISO) *ISO 6781, ''Thermal insulation – Qualitative detection of thermal irregularities in building envelopes – Infrared method'' *ISO 18434-1, ''Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Thermography – Part 1: General procedures'' *ISO 18436-7, ''Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Requirements for qualification and assessment of personnel – Part 7: Thermography''


Biological counterpart

Thermography by definition is by means of an instrument (artifact), but some living creatures have natural organs that function as counterparts to
bolometer A bolometer is a device for measuring radiant heat by means of a material having a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. It was invented in 1878 by the American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley. Principle of operation A bolometer ...
s, and thus possess a crude type of thermal imaging capability (
thermoception Thermoception or thermoreception is the sensation and perception of temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a temperature ...
). One of the best known examples is
infrared sensing in snakes The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in two different groups of snakes, one consisting of the families Boidae (boas) and Pythonidae (pythons), the other of the family Crotalinae (pit vipers). What is commonly call ...
.


CCD and CMOS thermography

Non-specialized CCD and
CMOS Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS, pronounced "sea-moss", ) is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSF ...
sensors have most of their spectral sensitivity in the visible light wavelength range. However, by utilizing the "trailing" area of their spectral sensitivity, namely the part of the infrared spectrum called '' near-infrared'' (NIR), and by using off-the-shelf CCTV camera it is possible under certain circumstances to obtain true thermal images of objects with temperatures at about and higher. At temperatures of 600 °C and above, inexpensive cameras with CCD and
CMOS Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS, pronounced "sea-moss", ) is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSF ...
sensors have also been used for pyrometry in the visible spectrum. They have been used for soot in flames, burning coal particles, heated materials, SiC filaments, and smoldering embers. This pyrometry has been performed using external filters or only the sensor's
Bayer filter A Bayer filter mosaic is a color filter array (CFA) for arranging RGB color filters on a square grid of photosensors. Its particular arrangement of color filters is used in most single-chip digital image sensors used in digital cameras, camco ...
s. It has been performed using color ratios, grayscales, and/or a hybrid of both.


See also


References


External links


Infrared Tube
infrared imaging science demonstrations

Some uses of thermographic images in electronics

Infrared pictures

by Lawrence Mayes
IR Thermometry & Thermography Applications Repository
IR Thermometry & Thermography Applications Repository {{Authority control Infrared imaging Surveillance