Stick charts were made and used by the Marshallese to

navigate Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.Bowditch, 2003:799. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, ...

the

Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the contin ...

canoe A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using a single-bladed paddle. In British English, the ter ...

off the coast of the

Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Intern ...

. The charts represented major

ocean swell A swell, also sometimes referred to as ground swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air under the predominating influence of gravity, and thus are ofte ...

patterns and the ways the

islands An island (or isle) is an isolated piece of habitat that is surrounded by a dramatically different habitat, such as water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys. An island ...

disrupted those patterns, typically determined by sensing disruptions in ocean swells by islanders during sea navigation.Asscher 2002 Most stick charts were made from the midribs of coconut fronds that were tied together to form an open framework. Island locations were represented by shells tied to the framework, or by the lashed junction of two or more sticks. The threads represented prevailing

ocean surface wave In fluid dynamics, a wind wave, water wave, or wind-generated water wave, is a surface wave that occurs on the free surface of bodies of water as a result from the wind blowing over the water surface. The contact distance in the direction o ...

-crests and directions they took as they approached islands and met other similar wave-crests formed by the ebb and flow of breakers. Individual charts varied so much in form and interpretation that the individual navigator who made the chart was the only person who could fully interpret and use it. The use of stick charts ended after

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...

when new electronic technologies made navigation more accessible and travel among islands by canoe lessened.

Significance to the history of cartography

The stick charts are a significant contribution to the

history of cartography The history of cartography refers to the development and consequences of cartography, or mapmaking technology, throughout human history. Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navi ...

because they represent a system of

map A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes. Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic or interactive. Although ...

ping

s, which was never before accomplished. They also use different materials from those common in other parts of the world. They are an indication that ancient

s may have looked very different, and encoded different features from the earth, from the maps that we use today. The charts, unlike traditional

s, were studied and memorized prior to a voyage and were not consulted during a trip, as compared to traditional navigation techniques where consultation of a map is frequent and points and courses are plotted out both before and during navigation. Marshallese navigators used their senses and memory to guide them on voyages by crouching down or lying prone in the canoe to feel how the canoe was being pitched and rolled by underlying swells.

Ocean swells recognized by Marshallese

The Marshallese recognized four main ocean swells: the ''rilib'', ''kaelib'', ''bungdockerik'' and ''bundockeing''. Navigators focused on effects of islands in blocking swells and generating counterswells to some degree, but they mainly concentrated on

refraction In physics, refraction is the redirection of a wave as it passes from one medium to another. The redirection can be caused by the wave's change in speed or by a change in the medium. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenome ...

of swells as they came in contact with undersea slopes of islands and the bending of swells around islands as they interacted with swells coming from opposite directions. The four types of ocean swells were represented in many stick charts by curved sticks and threads.

Rilib swells

''Rilib'' swells are the strongest of the four ocean swells and were referred to as "backbone" swells. They are generated by the northeast

trade winds The trade winds or easterlies are the permanent east-to-west prevailing winds that flow in the Earth's equatorial region. The trade winds blow mainly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisp ...

and are present during the entire year, even when they do not penetrate as far south as the Marshall Islands. Marshallese considered the ''rilib'' swells to come from the east, even though the angle of the winds as well as the impact of the ocean currents varied the swell direction.

Kaelib swells

The ''kaelib'' swell is weaker than the ''rilib'' and could only be detected by knowledgeable persons, but it is also present year round.

Bungdockerik swells

The ''bungdockerik'' is present year round as well and arises in the southwest. This swell is often as strong as the ''rilib'' in the southern islands.

Bundockeing swells

The ''bundockeing'' swell is the weakest of the four swells, and is mainly felt in the northern islands.

Stick chart categories

The stick charts typically fall into three main categories: ''mattang'', ''meddo'' (or ''medo''), and ''rebbelib'' (or ''rebbelith'').

Mattang charts

The ''mattang'' stick chart was an abstract chart used for instruction and for teaching principles of reading how islands disrupt swells.

Meddo charts

The ''meddo'' chart showed actual islands and their relative or exact positions. ''Meddo'' charts also showed the direction of main deep ocean swells, the way the swells curved around specific islands and intersected with one another, and distance from a canoe at which an island could be detected. The ''meddo'' chart portrayed only a section of one of the two main island chains.

Rebbelib charts

''Rebbelib'' charts portrayed the same information as a meddo chart, but the difference lies in inclusiveness of the islands. ''Rebbelib'' charts, unlike ''meddo'' charts, included all or most of one or both chains of islands.

Knowledge transfer

Stick charts were not made and used by all Marshall Islanders. Only a select few rulers knew the method of making the maps, and the knowledge was only passed on from father to son. So that others could utilize the expertise of the navigator, fifteen or more canoes sailed together in a

squadron Squadron may refer to: * Squadron (army), a military unit of cavalry, tanks, or equivalent subdivided into troops or tank companies * Squadron (aviation), a military unit that consists of three or four flights with a total of 12 to 24 aircraft, ...

, accompanied by a leader pilot skilled in use of the charts. It was not until 1862 that this unique piloting system was revealed in a public notice prepared by a resident

missionary A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...

. It was not until the 1890s that it was comprehensively described by a naval officer, Captain Winkler of the

Imperial German Navy The Imperial German Navy or the Imperial Navy () was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence. Kaise ...

. Winkler had been the commander of the , stationed in 1896 in the Marshall Islands which, during that period, were under German rule; he subsequently described the system in an 1898 publication. Winkler became so intrigued by the stick charts that he made a major effort to determine navigational principles behind them and convinced the navigators to share how the stick charts were used.

Notes

References

* Ascher, Marcia ** Models and maps from the Marshall Islands. A case in etnomathematics, ''Historia Mathematica'', 22(1995) 347-370. ** ''Mathematics Elsewhere. An Exploration of Ideas across Cultures'', Princeton Universiy Press, 2002, pp89, 95-97, 101-125. * Bagrow, L. ''History of Cartography''. Second Edition. Chicago, Precedent Publishing, Inc., 1966. * Genz, J., Aucan, J., Merrifeld, M. , Finney, B., Joel, K., and Kelen, Alson, Wave Navigation in the Marshall Islands, ''Oceanography'' 22(2009), No. 2., 234–245. * Woodward, D. and Malcolm Lewis, G
''The History of Cartography: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies.'' Volume Two, Book Three.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1998.

External links

Dirk HR Spennemann. ''Traditional and Nineteenth Century Communication Patterns In the Marshall Islands''
article includes extensive explanations of stick charts
Polynesian Stick Charts
includes many photographs

diagrams and photographs. Archived.
Marshall Islands Guide
*
A short video on navigation by ocean wave refraction and stick charts by NOAA.
* Reddit posts showing stick charts
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RESOLVING AMBIVALENCE IN MARSHALLESE NAVIGATION:RELEARNING, REINTERPRETING, AND REVIVING THE “STICK CHART” WAVE MODELS, Joseph H. Genz, 2016
{{Authority control Cartography by country Marshallese culture Traditional knowledge Plant products