HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Special reconnaissance (SR) or Recon Team is conducted by small units of highly trained
military personnel Military personnel are members of the state's armed forces. Their roles, pay, and obligations differ according to their military branch (army, navy, marines, air force, space force, and coast guard), rank ( officer, non-commissioned office ...
, usually from special forces units or
military intelligence Military intelligence is a military discipline that uses information collection and analysis approaches to provide guidance and direction to assist commanders in their decisions. This aim is achieved by providing an assessment of data from a ...
organizations, who operate behind enemy lines, avoiding direct combat and detection by the enemy. As a role, SR is distinct from commando operations, but both are often carried out by the same units. The SR role frequently includes covert direction of
airstrikes An airstrike, air strike or air raid is an offensive operation carried out by aircraft. Air strikes are delivered from aircraft such as blimps, balloons, fighters, heavy bombers, ground attack aircraft, attack helicopters and drones. The offici ...
and indirect fires, in areas deep behind enemy lines, placement of remotely monitored sensors, and preparations for other special forces. Like other special forces, SR units may also carry out direct action and unconventional warfare, including guerrilla operations. In intelligence terms, SR is a human intelligence (HUMINT) collection discipline. Its operational control is likely to be inside a compartmented cell of the HUMINT, or possibly the operations, staff functions. Since such personnel are trained for intelligence collection as well as other missions, they will usually maintain clandestine communications to the HUMINT organization and will be systematically prepared for debriefing. They operate significantly farther forward than even the most forward friendly scouting and surveillance units. In international law, SR is not regarded as
espionage Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information ( intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tang ...
if combatants are in proper uniforms, regardless of formation, according to the Hague Convention of 1907, or the
Fourth Geneva Convention The Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, more commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention and abbreviated as GCIV, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It was adopted in Augu ...
of 1949. However, some countries do not honor these legal protections, as was the case with the Nazi " Commando Order" of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
, which was held to be illegal at the
Nuremberg Trials The Nuremberg trials were held by the Allies of World War II, Allies against representatives of the defeated Nazi Germany, for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries, and other crimes, in World War II. Between 1939 and 1945 ...
.


History

While SR has been a function of armies since ancient times, specialized units with this task date from the lead-up to World War II. In 1938, the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and the
War Office The War Office was a department of the British Government responsible for the administration of the British Army between 1857 and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the new Ministry of Defence (MoD). This article contains text from ...
both set up special research departments: Section D and "Military Intelligence (Research)" to investigate possible sabotage and other ways to attack the enemy. These later merged in 1940 with the propaganda unit Department EH to form the basis of the
Special Operations Executive The Special Operations Executive (SOE) was a secret British World War II organisation. It was officially formed on 22 July 1940 under Minister of Economic Warfare Hugh Dalton, from the amalgamation of three existing secret organisations. Its p ...
(SOE), which would conduct irregular warfare operations in occupied Europe. In 1941, during the North African Campaign volunteers from Allies formed, under the auspices of the British Army, the Long Range Desert Group for reconnaissance and raiding behind Italian lines and the Special Air Service a commando group. In 1942, following the onset of the
Pacific Theater of World War II The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia–Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and Oceania. It was geographically the largest theater of the war, including the vast ...
, the Allied Intelligence Bureau, was set up in Australia. Drawing on personnel from Australian, British, New Zealand and other Allied forces, it included Coastwatchers and "special units" that undertook reconnaissance behind enemy lines. During the
Winter War The Winter War,, sv, Vinterkriget, rus, Зи́мняя война́, r=Zimnyaya voyna. The names Soviet–Finnish War 1939–1940 (russian: link=no, Сове́тско-финская война́ 1939–1940) and Soviet–Finland War 1 ...
(1939–40) and the Continuation War, which was the name of the Finnish theater of World War II active between 1941 and 1944, Finland employed several ''kaukopartio'' ("long range patrol") units. The US Government established the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), modeled on the British SOE, in June 1942. Following the end of the war OSS became the basis for the CIA. During the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by #Names, other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vie ...
, respective division and brigades in-country trained their Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members (now known as the Long Range Surveillance units). However, the US Army's 5th Special Forces Group with support from seconded Australian SASR and AATTV instructors, held an advanced course in the art of patrolling for potential Army and Marine team leaders at their Recondo School in Nha Trang, Vietnam, for the purpose of locating enemy guerrilla and main force
North Vietnamese Army The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN; vi, Quân đội nhân dân Việt Nam, QĐNDVN), also recognized as the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) or the Vietnamese Army (), is the military force of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the armed wi ...
units, as well as artillery spotting, intelligence gathering, forward air control, and bomb damage assessment. During the
War on Terror The war on terror, officially the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), is an ongoing international counterterrorism military campaign initiated by the United States following the September 11 attacks. The main targets of the campaign are militant ...
, the US Army began to develop a limited number of special reconnaissance platoons at the battalion level of conventional infantry units. These platoons were most often composed of Ranger-qualified soldiers and given selection of advanced training in order to allow them to work in close conjunction with Special Forces and US Government Agencies.


Long range surveillance units within larger formations

Conventional infantry formations have long had dedicated reconnaissance units, such as scout platoons, that can operate forward of a main line of troops. For example, reorganized US Army
brigade combat team The brigade combat team (BCT) is the basic deployable unit of maneuver in the U.S. Army. A brigade combat team consists of one combat arms branch maneuver brigade, and its assigned support and fire units. A brigade is normally commanded by ...
s – now the army's " unit of action" – have or will gain reconnaissance squadrons (i.e., "light battalion"-sized units). US Army
Battlefield Surveillance Brigade The battlefield surveillance brigade (BfSB) was a United States Army surveillance/reconnaissance formation introduced from 2006 to 2015. The United States Army planned for the creation and transformation of nine intelligence brigades to a 'ba ...
s (BfSB) have specialized Long Range Surveillance (LRS) companies. Long range surveillance teams operate behind enemy lines, deep within enemy territory, forward of battalion reconnaissance teams and cavalry scouts in their assigned area of interest. The duration of an LRS mission depends on equipment and supplies the team must carry, movement distance to the objective area, and resupply availability. LRS teams normally operate up to seven days without resupply depending on terrain and weather. SR units are well armed, since they may have to defend themselves if they are detected and their exfiltration support will need time to reach them. During the 1991
Gulf War The Gulf War was a 1990–1991 armed campaign waged by a 35-country military coalition in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Spearheaded by the United States, the coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: ...
, British SAS and United States Army and Air Force Special Operations Forces (AFSOC) units were originally sent behind enemy lines to find mobile Iraqi Scud tactical ballistic missile launchers and direct airstrikes onto them. When air support was delayed, however, the patrols might attack key Scud system elements with their own weapons and explosives. While there are obvious risks to doing so, SR-trained units can operate out of uniform. They may use motorcycles, four-wheel-drive vehicles, or multiple helicopter lifts in their area of operations, or have mountaineering or combat swimming capability. Most SR units are trained in advanced helicopter movement and at least basic parachuting; some SR will have
HAHO High-altitude military parachuting, or military free fall (MFF), is a method of delivering military personnel, military equipment, and other military supplies from a transport aircraft at a high altitude via free-fall parachute insertion. Tw ...
and HALO advanced parachute capability. SR will have more organic support capabilities, including long-range communications, possibly signals intelligence, and other means of collecting technical intelligence, and usually at least one skilled medical technician whose proficiency is greater than basic first aid. All these organizations have special operations roles, with SR often being performed by specialists within an organization. Certain organizations are tasked for a response involving areas contaminated by chemical weapons,
biological agents A biological agent (also called bio-agent, biological threat agent, biological warfare agent, biological weapon, or bioweapon) is a bacterium, virus, protozoan, parasite, fungus, or toxin that can be used purposefully as a weapon in bioterroris ...
, or radioactivity. Since reconnaissance is a basic military skill, "special" reconnaissance refers to the means of operating in the desired area, and the nature of the mission. In US Army doctrine, there are five basic factors: #Physical distances: The area of operations may be well beyond the forward line of troops, and require special skills to reach the area. #Political considerations: Clandestine insertion also may be a requirement. If there is a requirement to work with local personnel, language skills and political awareness may be critical. #Availability of required special skills and expertise: The most basic requirement for SR is to be able to remain unobserved, which may take special skills and equipment. If there is a requirement to collect intelligence, skills anywhere from advanced photography to remote sensor operation may be required. #Threat capabilities: This usually relates to the need to stay clandestine, potentially against an opposing force with sophisticated intelligence capabilities. Such capabilities may be organic to a force or be available from a sponsoring third country. #Follow-on special forces missions: This is the concept of preparing for other functions, such as Unconventional Warfare (UW) (i.e., guerrilla) or Foreign Internal Defense (FID) (i.e. counter-guerrilla) operations.


Appropriate missions

Special forces units that perform SR are usually polyvalent, so SR missions may be intelligence gathering in support of another function, such as counter-insurgency, foreign internal defense (FID), guerrilla/ unconventional warfare (UW), or direct action (DA). Other missions may deal with locating targets and planning, guiding, and evaluating attacks against them. Target analysis could go in either place. If air or missile strikes are delivered after the SR team leaves the AO, the SR aspect is intelligence, but if the strikes are to be delivered and possibly corrected and evaluated by the SR team, the SR mission is fires-related.


Intelligence related missions

Every SR mission will collect intelligence, even incidentally. Before a mission, SR teams will usually study all available and relevant information on the area of operations (AO). On their mission, they then confirm, amplify, correct, or refute this information. Assessment, whether by clandestine SR or overt study teams, is a prerequisite for other special operations missions, such as UW or FID. DA or counter-terror (CT), usually implies clandestine SR.


Hydrographic, meteorological and geographic reconnaissance

Mission planners may not know if a given force can move over a specific route. These variables may be hydrographic, meteorological, or geographic. SR teams can resolve trafficability or fordability, or locate obstacles or barriers.
MASINT Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) is a technical branch of intelligence gathering, which serves to detect, track, identify or describe the distinctive characteristics (signatures) of fixed or dynamic target sources. This often incl ...
(measurement and signature intelligence) sensors exist for most of these requirements. The SR team can emplace remotely operated weather instrumentation. Portable devices to determine the depth and bottom characteristics of waters are readily available as commercial fishing equipment or more sophisticated devices specific to military naval operations. Remote-viewing MASINT sensors to determine the trafficability of a beach are experimental. Sometimes, simple observation or use of a penetrometer or weighted cone that measures how deeply weights will sink into the surface are needed. These however have to be done at the actual site. Beach measurements are often assigned to naval SR units like the United States Navy SEALs or UK Special Boat Service. Beach and shallow water reconnaissance, immediately before an amphibious landing is considered direct support to the invasion, not SR. SR would determine if a given beach is suitable for any landing, well before the operational decision to invade. There is a blurred line between SR and direct action in support of amphibious operations when an outlying island is captured, with the primary goal of using it as a base for surveillance and support functions. Despite being a large scale operation by SR standards, an early example is the attack by elements of the 77th Infantry Division on
Kerama Retto The are a subtropical island group southwest of Okinawa Island in Japan. Geography Four islands are inhabited: Tokashiki Island, Zamami Island, Aka Island, and Geruma Island. The islands are administered as Tokashiki Village and Zamami Villa ...
before the main battle. Operation Trudy Jackson, which involved the capture of Yeongheungdo, an island in the mouth of the harbor before the
Battle of Inchon The Battle of Incheon (), also spelled Battle of Inchon, was an amphibious invasion and a battle of the Korean War that resulted in a decisive victory and strategic reversal in favor of the United Nations Command (UN). The operation involved s ...
, by a joint CIA/military team led by Navy LT Eugene Clark is much more in the SR/DA realm. Clark apparently led numerous SR and DA operations during the Korean War, some of which may still be classified.


IMINT (Imagery Intelligence)

Basic photography and sketching is usually a skill for any individual performing an SR mission. More advanced photographic technique may require additional training or attaching specialists to a team. Lightweight
unmanned aerial vehicle An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controll ...
s with imagery and other intelligence collection capabilities are potentially useful for SR, since small UAVs have low observability. SR team members can be trained to use them, or specialists can be attached to a team. The UAV may transmit what it sees, using one or more sensors, either to the SR team or a monitoring headquarters. Potential sensors include stabilized and highly magnified photography, low-light television, thermal imagers and imaging radar. Larger UAVs, which could be under the operational control of the SR team, could use additional sensors including portable acoustic and electro-optical systems.


SIGINT (Signals Intelligence) and EW (Electronic Warfare)

If there is a ground SIGINT requirement deep behind enemy lines, an appropriate technical detachment may be attached to the SR element. For SIGINT operations, the basic augmentation to
United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance Force Reconnaissance (FORECON) is one of the United States Marine Corps' special operations capable forces (SOC) which supplies military intelligence to the command element of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF). Force Reconnaissance compa ...
(Force Recon) is a 6-man detachment from a
Radio Reconnaissance Platoon The Radio Reconnaissance Platoon is a specially trained Marine Corps Intelligence element of a United States Marine Corps Radio Battalion. A Radio Reconnaissance Team (RRT) was assigned as the tactical signals intelligence collection element fo ...
. There is a SIGINT platoon within the Intelligence Company of the new Marine Special Operations Support Group. Army Special Forces (SF) have Special Operations Team-Alpha that can operate with an SF team, or independently. This low-level collection team typically has four men. Their primary equipment is the AN/PRD-13 SOF SIGINT Manpack System (SSMS), with capabilities including direction-finding capability from 2 MHz to 2 GHz, and monitoring from 1 to 1400 MHz. SOT-As also are able to exploit computer networks, and sophisticated communications systems. The British 18 (UKSF) Signal Regiment provides SIGINT personnel, including from the 264 (SAS) Signals Squadron and SBS Signals Squadron to provide specialist SIGINT, secure communications, and information technology augmentation to operational units. They may be operating in counterterror roles in Iraq in the joint UK/US
Task Force Black Joint Special Operations Command Task Force in the Iraq War was a joint American and British special operations unit, of which little is publicly known. It is described as a "hunter-killer team" with its core made up of the United States Army's ...
. If the unit needs to conduct offensive clandestine
electronic warfare Electronic warfare (EW) is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults. The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent ...
, any electronic countermeasures (ECM) devices are usually operated remotely, either by the SR force or, preferably, by remote electronic warfare personnel after the SR team leaves the area.


MASINT (Measurement and Signature Intelligence) and remote surveillance

Passive
MASINT Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) is a technical branch of intelligence gathering, which serves to detect, track, identify or describe the distinctive characteristics (signatures) of fixed or dynamic target sources. This often incl ...
sensors can be used tactically by the SR mission. SR personnel also may place unmanned MASINT sensors like seismic, magnetic, and other personnel or vehicle detectors for subsequent remote use. Remote sensing is generally understood to have begun with US operations against the Laotian section of the Ho Chi Minh trail, in 1961. Under CIA direction, Lao nationals were trained to observe and photograph traffic on the Trail. This produced quite limited results, and, in 1964, Project LEAPING LENA parachuted in teams of Vietnamese
Montagnards Montagnard (''of the mountain'' or ''mountain dweller'') may refer to: *Montagnard (French Revolution), members of The Mountain (''La Montagne''), a political group during the French Revolution (1790s) ** Montagnard (1848 revolution), members of th ...
led by Vietnamese Special Forces. The very limited results from LEAPING LENA led to two changes. First,
Project DELTA Project DELTA was the first of the Reconnaissance Projects, which were special reconnaissance (SR) units named with a Greek letter. The Reconnaissance Projects were formed by the U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) during the Vietnam ...
(LEAPING LENA's replacement), used US-led SR teams. Second, these Army teams worked closely with Forward Air Controllers (FAC) which were instrumental in directing US air attacks by fighter-bombers as well as strategic bombing via BARREL ROLL in northern Laos and Operation STEEL TIGER in southern Laos. While the FACs immediately helped, air-ground cooperation improved significantly with the use of remote geophysical MASINT sensors, although MASINT had not yet been coined as a term. The original sensors, a dim ancestor of today's technologies, started with air-delivered sensors under Operation Igloo White, such as air-delivered Acoubuoy and Spikebuoy
acoustic sensors Acoustic may refer to: Music Albums * ''Acoustic'' (Above & Beyond album), 2014 * ''Acoustic'' (Deine Lakaien album), 2007 * ''Acoustic'' (Everything but the Girl album), 1992 * ''Acoustic'' (John Lennon album), 2004 * ''Acoustic'' (Love Amo ...
. These cued monitoring aircraft, which sent the data to a processing center in Thailand, from which target information was sent to the DELTA teams. Closer to today's SR-emplaced sensors was the Mini-Seismic Intrusion Detector (MINISID). Unlike other sensors employed along the trail, it was specifically designed to be hand delivered and implanted. The MINISID and its smaller version the MICROSID were personnel detection devices often used in combination with the magnetic intrusion detector (MAGID). Combining sensors in this way improved the ability of individual sensors to detect targets and reduced false alarms. Today's AN/GSQ-187 Improved Remote Battlefield Sensor System (I-REMBASS) is a passive acoustic sensor which, with other MASINT sensors, detects vehicles and humans on a battlefield. It is routine for SR units to emplace such sensors both for regional monitoring by higher headquarters' remote sensing centers, as well as for tactical intelligence during the mission, as they are an improvement over
tripwire A tripwire is a passive triggering mechanism. Typically, a wire or cord is attached to a device for detecting or reacting to physical movement. Military applications Such tripwires may be attached to one or more mines – especially fragme ...
s and other improvised warnings. Passive acoustic sensors provide additional measurements that can be compared with signatures and used to complement other sensors. For example, a ground search radar may not be able to differentiate between a tank and a truck moving at the same speed but adding acoustic information may quickly help differentiate them.


TECHINT (Technical Intelligence)

Capture of enemy equipment for TECHINT analysis is a standard SR mission. Capture of enemy equipment for examination by TECHINT specialists may be a principal part of SR patrols and larger raids, such as the World War II Operation Biting raid on Saint-Jouin-Bruneval, France which captured a German Würzburg radar and a German radar technician. Not uncommon for such operations, a technical specialist (radar engineer Flight Sergeant C.W.H. Cox) was attached to this SR unit. Sometimes technical specialists without SR training have taken their first parachute jump on TECHINT-oriented SR missions. Cox instructed the team in what to take and, if it could not be moved, what to photograph. Cox had significant knowledge of British radar, and conflicting reports say that the force was under orders to kill him rather than let him be captured. This likely was an after-the-action rumor, as Cox was a technician. The true radar expert, Don Preist, could not be captured as he stayed offshore but was in communications with the raiders. Preist also had ELINT equipment to gain information on the radar. A mixture of SR, DA, and seizing opportunities characterized the Sayeret Matkal's
Operation Rooster 53 Operation Rooster 53 was an Israeli military operation during the War of Attrition to capture an Egyptian P-12 radar system. Often referred to as merely Operation Rooster, it was carried out on December 26 and 27, 1969. Participating forces i ...
, originally planned as a mission to locate and disable a radar. It turned into an opportunity to capture the radar and, despite overloading the helicopter on its return trip, they were able to bring the entire radar back for TECHINT analysis.


Specific Data Collection

SR teams may be assigned to observe and measure specific information at a site or enemy facility for future operations. Regular ground forces, for example, might need a road and bridge surveyed to know whether heavy vehicles can cross it. The SR may be able to confirm this. An engineering specialist, preferably from a special operations organization may need to augment the team. SR commanders need to ensure such missions cannot be performed by organic reconnaissance elements of a maneuver force commander supported by the SR organization or other supporting reconnaissance services such as IMINT. For example, during the
Falklands War The Falklands War ( es, link=no, Guerra de las Malvinas) was a ten-week undeclared war between Argentina and the United Kingdom in 1982 over two British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and its territorial ...
of 1982, UK Special Air Service delivered eight 4-man patrols via helicopter deep into enemy-held territory up to from their hide sites several weeks before the main conventional force landings. Each man carried equipment needed for up to 25 days due to resupply limitations (cf. the 7-day limits of conventional LRS patrols discussed above). These patrols surveyed major centers of enemy activity. The patrols reconnoitered Argentinian positions at night, and then due to the lack of cover moved to distant observation posts (OPs). Information gathered was relayed to the fleet by secure radio which was still vulnerable to SIGINT which could locate their OPs. No common understanding of the threat of Argentine direction finding existed, and different teams developed individual solutions. The value of the information and the stress on the SR teams were tremendous. Their activities helped the force, limited in its sensors, develop an accurate operational picture of the opposition.


Offensive missions

SR units can engage targets of opportunity, but current doctrine emphasizes avoiding direct engagement, concentrating instead on directing air (e.g., GAPS (Ground-Aided Precision Strikes) and
CAS Cas may refer to: * Caș, a type of cheese made in Romania * ' (1886–) Czech magazine associated with Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk * '' Čas'' (19 April 1945–February 1948), the official, daily newspaper of the Democratic Party of Slovakia * ''CA ...
(Close Air Support)), artillery, and other heavy fire support onto targets. The doctrine of bringing increasingly more accurate and potent firepower has evolved significantly since the early days of Vietnam. SR units are trained in target analysis which combines both engineer reconnaissance and special forces assessment to identify targets for subsequent attack by fire support, conventional units, or special operations (i.e., direct action or unconventional warfare behind enemy lines). They evaluate targets using the "CARVER" mnemonic: *Criticality: How important, in a strategic context, is the target? What effect will its destruction have on other elements of the target system? Is it more important to have real-time surveillance of the target (e.g., a road junction) than its physical destruction? *Accessibility: Can an SR team reach or sense the target, keep it under surveillance for the appropriate time, and then exfiltrate after the target is struck? *Recuperability: When the target is destroyed by fire support or direct action, in the case of DA missions, can the enemy repair, replace, or bypass it quickly using minimum resources? If so, it may not be a viable target. *Vulnerability: do SR (including DA) and supporting units have the capability to destroy the target? *Effect: Beyond pure military effect what are the political, economic, legal, and psychological effects of destroying the target? How would the attack affect local civilians? *Recognizability: Can the target be recognized clearly, by SR and attack forces, under the prevailing weather, light, and in its terrain? If there are critical points within the target, they also must be recognizable by the means of destruction used.


Target acquisition

There are some differences between general and SR processes of target acquisition: conventional units typically identify targets that directly affect the performance of their mission, while SR target acquisition may be of a much wider scope and include identifying enemy locations or resources of strategic significance. Examples of difficult strategic targets included
Ho Chi Minh (: ; born ; 19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969), commonly known as (' Uncle Hồ'), also known as ('President Hồ'), (' Old father of the people') and by other aliases, was a Vietnamese revolutionary and statesman. He served as P ...
trail infrastructures and logistic concentrations, and the Scud hunt during
Operation Desert Storm Operation or Operations may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity * Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory * ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Ma ...
. SR units detect, identify, and locate targets to be engaged by lethal or nonlethal attack systems under the control of higher headquarters. SR also provides information on weather, obscuring factors such as terrain masking and camouflage, friendly or civilian presence in the target area, and other information that will be needed in targeting by independent attack systems. During
Operation Desert Storm Operation or Operations may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity * Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory * ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Ma ...
, the US senior commanders, Colin Powell and Norman Schwarzkopf were opposed to using SOF ground troops to search for Iraqi mobile SCUD launchers. However, the senior British officer of the
Coalition A coalition is a group formed when two or more people or groups temporarily work together to achieve a common goal. The term is most frequently used to denote a formation of power in political or economical spaces. Formation According to ''A Gui ...
, Peter de la Billière, himself a former SAS commander, was well-disposed to use the SAS for such SR and did so. With additional Israeli pressure to send its own SOF teams into western Iraq, US Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney proposed using US SR teams to complement the SAS efforts. On February 7, US SR teams joined British teams in the hunt for mobile Scud launchers. Open sources contain relatively little operational information about U.S. SOF activities in western Iraq. Some basic elements have emerged, however. Operating at night, Air Force MH-53J Pave Low and Army MH-47E helicopters would ferry SOF ground teams and their specially equipped four-wheel-drive vehicles from bases in Saudi Arabia to Iraq. The SOF personnel would patrol during the night and hide during the day. When targets were discovered, Air Force Combat Control Teams attached to the SR teams would communicate these targets over secure radios to AWACS.


Directing fire support

SR, going back to Vietnam, was far more potent when it directed external firepower onto the target rather than engaging it with its own weapons. Early coordination between SR and air support in Vietnam depended on visual and voice communications, without any electronics to make the delivery precise. SR teams could throw colored smoke grenades as a visual reference, but they needed to be in dangerously close range to the enemy to do so. A slightly improved method involved their directing a Forward Air Controller aircraft to fire marking rockets onto the target, but the method was fraught with error. In Vietnam, the support was usually aircraft-delivered, although in some cases the target might be in range of artillery. Today, the distance to which SR teams penetrate will usually be out of the range of artillery, but ground-launched missiles might support them. In either case, directing any support relies on one of two basic guidance paradigms: *Go-Onto-Target (GOT) for moving targets, *Go-Onto-Location-in-Space (GOLIS) for fixed targets For close air support, the assumption had been that rapidly changing tactical situations, including sudden changes in geometry between friendly forces and the target, GOT was preferred. If the attack was to be guided from the ground, the target would be directly targeted in some manner, such as a laser designator.


Post-strike reconnaissance

Post-strike reconnaissance, also called bomb damage assessment (BDA) is the visual, photographic, and/or electronic surveillance of a target that has been attacked to measure results. SR units carry out these missions when no other capabilities, such as conventional ground forces, local scouts and aviation, UAVs and other systems under the control of higher headquarters, or national-level intelligence collection capabilities can obtain the needed information.


Operational techniques

An SR team's mission is not to engage in direct combat. It may be to observe and report, or it may include directing air or artillery attacks on enemy positions. If the latter is the case, the patrol still tries to stay covert; ideally, the enemy will know they are being attacked, but not know who is directing the fires. While it is rare for a single man to do a special reconnaissance mission, it does happen. More commonly, the smallest unit is a two-man sniper team. Snipers are skilled in concealment and observation, and can carry out pure reconnaissance missions. The US Marine Corps often detaches sniper teams organic to combat units, to establish clandestine observation posts. Marine Force Recon Greenside Operations are those in which combat is not expected. US Army Special Forces SR operations commonly are built around 12-man "A detachments" or 6-man "split A detachments" and US Army Long Range Surveillance Teams are 6-man teams. UK Special Air Service operations utilize four-man units.


Infiltration

Special reconnaissance teams, depending on training and resources, may enter the area of operations in many ways. They may stay behind, where the unit deliberately stays hidden in an area that is expected to be overrun by advancing enemy forces. They may infiltrate by foot if the enemy does not have full view of his own lines and skilled soldiers may penetrate those front lines. Such movement is most often by night. They may have mechanical help on the ground, such as tactical four-wheel-drive vehicles (e.g., dune buggies or long-wheelbase
Land Rovers Land Rover is a British brand of predominantly four-wheel drive, off-road capable vehicles, owned by multinational car manufacturer Jaguar Land Rover (JLR), since 2008 a subsidiary of India's Tata Motors. JLR currently builds Land Rovers i ...
) or motorcycles. The British Special Air Service were pioneers in vehicle SR, going back to their operations in North Africa during World War II. In Desert Storm, US SR forces used medium and heavy helicopters to transport ground vehicles for the Scud Hunt. SR units may use animals as pack animals or for riding. US Army Special Forces rode on horseback when working alongside the Afghan Northern Alliance. SR units may also be transported by air. They can travel by
helicopter A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attribu ...
and disembark by
fast roping Fast-roping is a technique for descending a thick rope, allowing troops to deploy from a helicopter in places where the aircraft cannot touch down. The person holds onto the rope with gloved hands (with or without using their feet) and slides do ...
, ladder, or other techniques. Helicopters may make a series of touchdowns; the SR team will disembark on one of the touchdowns while the others are meant to mislead the enemy. Alternatively, they can parachute; HALO or
HAHO High-altitude military parachuting, or military free fall (MFF), is a method of delivering military personnel, military equipment, and other military supplies from a transport aircraft at a high altitude via free-fall parachute insertion. Tw ...
can be used to reduce the risk of discovery. Appropriately trained and equipped SR personnel can infiltrate by water as well. Boats may be delivered by surface ship or even helicopter. Another option is underwater movement, by swimming or
delivery vehicle Delivery is the process of transporting goods from a source location to a predefined destination. Cargo (physical goods) is primarily delivered via roads and railroads on land, shipping lanes on the sea, and airline networks in the air. Cer ...
, from a submarine or an offshore surface ship. Some highly trained troops, such as United States Navy SEALs or British Special Boat Service may parachute into open water and swim to the target.


Support

Units on short missions may carry their own supplies but longer missions may require resupply. Typically, SR units are familiar with the area of operations and are comfortable with local food if necessary. Radio transmission, when necessary, are kept as short and precise as possible as even the most secure radios can be detected and located. One way of shortening messages is to define a set of codes, typically two-letter, for various prearranged packages of equipment. Those starting with "A" might be for ammunition, "F" for food, and "M" for medical.
Burst transmission In telecommunication, a burst transmission or data burst is the broadcast of a relatively high-bandwidth transmission over a short period. Burst transmission can be intentional, broadcasting a compressed message at a very high data signaling rate ...
may also be used to prevent detection. When long-range or long-duration patrols need resupply, a variety of techniques are used, though each have tradeoffs in security, resupply platform range and stealth, and the type and amount of resupply needed. As with infiltration, helicopters may make a number of quick touchdowns, all but one meant to mislead the enemy. If it is reasonably certain that the enemy knows some patrols are present, the helicopters may even make some touchdowns more easily observed, but leave
boobytrap A booby trap is a device or setup that is intended to kill, harm or surprise a human or another animal. It is triggered by the presence or actions of the victim and sometimes has some form of bait designed to lure the victim towards it. The trap m ...
ped supplies. SR teams may need to have wounded personnel replaced or evacuated. In some extreme situations, wounded personnel who cannot travel may be killed by their own side, to avoid capture and interrogation which could compromise the special reconnaissance mission. Killing wounded personnel is described as a feature of Soviet and Russian
Spetsnaz Spetsnaz are special forces in numerous post-Soviet states. (The term is borrowed from rus, спецназ, p=spʲɪtsˈnas; abbreviation for or 'Special Purpose Military Units'; or .) Historically, the term ''spetsnaz'' referred to the ...
doctrine. A variant described for US personnel was explained to a US forward air controller, by a MACV SOG officer,
"If I decide that there's no way we can effect your rescue n Cambodia I’ll order the gunships to fire at you to prevent the enemy from getting their hands on you. I can’t risk having any of the econteams compromised if they take you alive."


Exfiltration

Most of the same methods used to infiltrate may be used to exfiltrate. Stay-behind forces may wait until friendly forces arrive in their area. One of the more common means of exfiltration is by special operations helicopters. There are a number of techniques that do not require the helicopter to land, including ladders, the
McGuire rig The McGuire Rig was used to extract soldiers from the jungles of Vietnam. It would be suspended from a helicopter and used to extract soldiers from areas without a suitable pick-up zone. It was simple, inexpensive, and effective. Although less comf ...
,
STABO The STABO (STA''bilized'' BO''dy'') extraction harness was a device which allowed military personnel to be rescued (by helicopter) from field locations which prevented the conventional landing and boarding of a helicopter. It was designed and ...
rig, and SPIE rig. Small helicopters, such as the MH-6, have benches outside the cabin, which trained soldiers can quickly jump onto.


Communications and electronics

Modern electronics have redefined communication for SR teams. Human-to-human electronics, however, are not the only critical advance. Navigational systems such as GPS have immense value. Laser rangefinders and designators can pinpoint the exact location of a target for fire support. Strong
encryption In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can d ...
, electronic counter-countermeasures, and techniques, like
burst transmission In telecommunication, a burst transmission or data burst is the broadcast of a relatively high-bandwidth transmission over a short period. Burst transmission can be intentional, broadcasting a compressed message at a very high data signaling rate ...
, aid in reducing the chance of being located. Current trends in secure communications for SR patrols to carry are based on the evolving concept of software-defined radio. The immensely flexible Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) is deployed with NATO special operations units, and can provide low-probability-of-intercept encrypted communications between ground units, from ground to aircraft, or from ground to satellite. It allows an SR team to use the same radio to operate on several networks and reduces the number of spare radios needed. By comparison, some of the raiders on the Vietnam War era Son Tay raid carried as many as five radios. JTRS also closely integrates with target designators so that a separate radio is not required to communicate with precision-guided munition launchers. The availability of man-portable UAVs which can be launched by an SR team and communicated with may result in fundamentally new tactical doctrines. Software-defined radio, along with standard information exchange protocols such as JTIDS Link 16, are enabling appropriate communications and situation awareness, reducing the chance of fratricide, across multiple military services. For example, an Air Force Situation Awareness Data Link (SADL) device that communicates between close air support aircraft can also exchange mission data with Army Enhanced Position Location Reporting System (EPLRS) equipment. The same basic equipment also interconnects EPLRS ground units.


Reporting during and after the mission

Debriefing may be done by a unit's HUMINT officers, who are most familiar with their information-gathering techniques. Information from SR patrols is likely to contribute to HUMINT collection, but, depending on the mission, may also contribute to IMINT, TECHINT, SIGINT, and
MASINT Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) is a technical branch of intelligence gathering, which serves to detect, track, identify or describe the distinctive characteristics (signatures) of fixed or dynamic target sources. This often incl ...
. Some of those techniques may be extremely sensitive and held on a need-to-know basis within the special reconnaissance organization and the all-source intelligence cell. SR personnel generally report basic information, which may be expressed with the "SALUTE" mnemonic *Size *Activity *Location *Unit *Time *Equipment They will provide map overlays, photography, and, if available, sensor data. SR troops are also trained in more advanced reporting, such as preparing multiple map overlays of targets, lines of communications, civilian and friendly concentrations, etc. They can perform target analysis and also graph various activities on a polar chart centered either on an arbitrary reference or on the principal target.


Example units

Many countries have units with an official special reconnaissance role, including: : * Special Air Service Regiment * 2nd Commando Regiment : *
SWADS The Special Warfare Diving and Salvage ( bn, স্পেশাল ওয়ারফেয়ার ডাইভিং অ্যান্ড স্যালভেজ) or SWADS is an elite special operational unit of the Bangladesh Navy. Memb ...
*
1st Para-Commando Battalion The Para Commando Brigade ( bn, প্যারা কমান্ডো ব্রিগেড) is a special operations force of the Bangladesh Army. This special forces brigade is headquartered at Sylhet and is composed of two Para Commando ...
: * Parachute Infantry Brigade (''Brigada de Infantaria Pára-quedista'') * Special Operations Command (''Comando de Operações Especiais'') * Marine Special Operations Battalion (''Batalhão de Operações Especiais de Fuzileiros Navais, Batalhão Tonelero'') : * Canadian Special Operations Regiment * Joint Task Force 2 : *
Jægerkorpset The Jaeger Corps also known as the Huntsmen Corps ( da, Jægerkorpset) is an elite special operations force of the Danish Defence part of Special Operations Command, formerly of the Royal Danish Army, based at Aalborg Air Base. History The Ja ...
* Frømandskorpset * Sirius Patrol (''two-man arctic patrols'') *
Special Support and Reconnaissance Company The Special Support and Reconnaissance Company ( da, Særlig Støtte- og Rekognosceringskompagni), until 1 January 2007 known as the ''Patrol Company Army Operational Command'' ( da, Patruljekompagniet) is the only remaining Long Range Surveillanc ...
. : * 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment * 13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment * Commando Parachute Group * 2nd Hussars Regiment : * Special Operations Forces * State Security Service * Special Paratrooper Department (ETA - Eidiko Tmima Alexiptotiston) * Fernspäher : * Para Commandos * MARCOS * Special Frontier Force * Garud Commando Force *
Ghatak Platoon A Ghatak Platoon, or Ghatak Commandos, is a special operations capable reconnaissance platoon that is present in every infantry battalion in the Indian Army. Ghatak is a Sanskrit word meaning "killer" or "lethal". Their name was given to them by ...
: * Kopassus * Combat Reconnaissance Platoon (Ton Taipur) * Taifib * Kopaska : * Army Ranger Wing (ARW) * Cavalry Corps * Directorate of Military Intelligence : * Sayeret Matkal * Shaldag Unit * Shayetet 13 * Maglan : * 185th Parachute Regiment special reconnaissance and target acquisition : * Lithuanian Special Operation Force : * 1st New Zealand Special Air Service Regiment : *
Malaysian Army The Malaysian Army ( ms, Tentera Darat Malaysia; Jawi: تنترا دارت مليسيا) is the land component of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Steeped in British Army traditions, the Malaysian Army does not carry the title ‘royal’ () as do th ...
**
Grup Gerak Khas The 21st Special Service Group ( Abbr.: 21 SSG, ) is a command for Malaysian Army special forces, the '' Gerak Khas''. The 21 SSG and 10th Parachute Brigade are elite fighting formations of the Malaysian Army. Both units are independent units und ...
* Royal Malaysian Navy ** PASKAL * Royal Malaysian Air Force ** PASKAU * Royal Malaysian Police **
69 Commando The 69 Commando (, Jawi: ٦٩ كومندو); also known as Very Able Troopers 69 (abbreviation: VAT 69) is an elite multi-tasking special forces unit of the Royal Malaysia Police. The VAT 69 is based at Ulu Kinta, Perak and together with Spec ...
**
Special Actions Unit The Special Actions Unit ('','' Jawi: اونيت تيندق خاص), commonly known as and abbreviated to UTK is a tactical unit of the Royal Malaysia Police (RMP). The unit is headquartered at the RMP buildings in Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur. ...
*
Malaysian Coast Guard The Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (Abbr.; MMEA; ms, Agensi Penguatkuasaan Maritim Malaysia – ''APMM''); formally known as Malaysia Coast Guard for international identification, is the coast guard organisation of Malaysia, and principa ...
** Special Task and Rescue :: * Pakistan Army ** Special Service Group (SSG) "Black Storks" * Pakistan Navy ** Special Service Group Navy (SSGN) * Pakistan Air Force ** Special Service Wing (SSW) :: * GROM * 1 Pułk Specjalny Komandosów : * Tropas de Operações Especiais (''Special Operations Troops'') * Precursores Aeroterrestres (''Air-Land Pathfinders'') * Destacamento de Ações Especiais (''Naval Special Actions Detachment'') : * Federal Security Service "FSB" ** Alpha Group Directorate "A" of the FSB Special Purpose Center (TsSN FSB), is an elite, stand-alone sub-unit of Russia's special forces. ** Vympel Group Directorate "V" of the FSB Special Purpose Center (TsSN FSB), is an elite, stand-alone sub-unit of Russia's special forces. * Armed Forces of the Russian Federation ** Special Operations Forces : Special Forces of the strategic level: under direct command of the Chief of Staff ** Spetsnaz GRU 2nd, 3rd, 10th, 14th, 16th, 22nd, 24th, 346th Spetsnaz Brigade (obrSpN): Ground Forces Special Forces ** 45th Guards Spetznaz Brigade Spetsnaz VDV: Airborne command Special Forces (orpSpN) ** Russian commando frogmen 42nd, 420th, 431st, 561st Naval Reconnaissance Spetsnaz Point (omrpSpN) : Navy Special Forces **''Razvedka'' "Military intelligence" personnel/units within larger formations in ground troops, airborne troops and marines. Intelligence battalion in the divisions, reconnaissance company in the brigade, a reconnaissance platoon in the regiment. Special Units of regular forces with training focusing on reconnaissance (pathfinder-like formations attached to other units. Not Special Forces). Mascot: bat. : * Sri Lanka Army Commando Regiment * Sri Lanka Army Special Forces Regiment * Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka) *
Sri Lanka Air Force Regiment Special Force The Regiment Special Force (RSF) is a Sri Lanka Air Forces elite special force unit, which is part of the SLAF Regiment. It was raised in 2006.The RSF Wing is an independent formation of the SLAF and commanded by a Commanding Officer who is resp ...
: * Särskilda Operationsgruppen (Special Operations Task Group) * Underrättelsebataljonen (Special Reconnaissance and Intelligence Battalion) *
Kustjägarna The 202nd Coastal Ranger Company ( sv, 202. kustjägarkompaniet, or , KJ) is an amphibious special operations capable ranger unit within the Swedish Amphibious Corps, which is the maritime land force arm of the Swedish Navy. History The embry ...
(Coastal Rangers) *
Fallskärmsjägarna The 323rd Parachute Ranger Squadron ( sv, 323. Fallskärmsjägarskvadron) or ''Fallskärmsjägarna'' (English: "Parachute Rangers" or "Airborne Rangers") is a Swedish military special operations capable airborne ranger unit specialising in long-r ...
(Parachute Rangers) : * ** Special Air Service (SAS) ** Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR) ** Pathfinder Platoon **
4/73 (Sphinx) Special Observation Post Battery RA 4/73 (Sphinx) Special Observation Post Battery Royal Artillery is a surveillance and target acquisition unit of the British Army. It is part of 5th Regiment Royal Artillery and is based at Catterick Garrison in North Yorkshire. Organisation 4/ ...
** Honourable Artillery Company *
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against Fr ...
** Special Boat Service (SBS) ** 30 Commando Information Exploitation Group Royal Marines : * ** United States Air Force Special Tactics Squadrons *** United States Air Force Special Reconnaissance * ** United States Army 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (Airborne) (1st SFOD-D) / "Delta Force" ** United States Army 75th Ranger Regiment (United States Army Rangers) ***United States Army 75th Ranger Regiment, Regimental Reconnaissance Company (RRC) **
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, ...
Battlefield Surveillance Brigade The battlefield surveillance brigade (BfSB) was a United States Army surveillance/reconnaissance formation introduced from 2006 to 2015. The United States Army planned for the creation and transformation of nine intelligence brigades to a 'ba ...
s (BfSBs) ***
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, ...
BfSB Reconnaissance & Surveillance Squadrons (R&S Squadrons) ****
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, ...
Long-Range Surveillance (LRS) Units *****United States Army LRS Companies ******United States Army LRS Detachments *******United States Army LRS Teams **
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, ...
Infantry Reconnaissance Platoons ** United States Army Intelligence Support Activity (USAISA) / "The Activity" ** United States Army Special Forces ("Green Berets") ***
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, ...
Special Operations Team-Alpha *United States Intelligence Community ** Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Paramilitary Operations (CIA Special Activities Division (SAD), Special Operations Group (SOG)) **
Defense Clandestine Service The Defense Clandestine Service (DCS) is an arm of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), which conducts clandestine espionage, intelligence gathering activities and classified operations around the world to provide insights and answer national ...
of the
Defense Intelligence Agency The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) is an intelligence agency and combat support agency of the United States Department of Defense, specializing in defense and military intelligence. A component of the Department of Defense (DoD) and the ...
** Special Collection Service, CIA-NSA Joint Special Collection Service **
National Underwater Reconnaissance Office The National Underwater Reconnaissance Office (NURO) is the "hidden younger brother" of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). NRO was initiated in 1960 and developed as a common office for United States Air Force and the Central Intelligence Ag ...
** Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hostage Rescue Team ** Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) SWAT ** Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) *
United States Marine Corps The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations through c ...
** United States Marine Corps Division Reconnaissance (Division Reconnaissance / Division Recon) **
United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance Force Reconnaissance (FORECON) is one of the United States Marine Corps' special operations capable forces (SOC) which supplies military intelligence to the command element of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF). Force Reconnaissance compa ...
(Force Reconnaissance / Force Recon / FORECON) ** United States Marine Corps Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) Battalions ** United States Marine Corps Radio Reconnaissance Platoons ** United States Marine Corps Scout Sniper Platoons ** United States Marine Corps Surveillance and Target Acquisition (STA) Platoons ** United States Marine Raider Regiment (United States Marine Raiders) *
United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...
** United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) / "SEAL Team 6" ** United States Navy Seabee Engineer Reconnaissance Teams (SERTs) ** Navy SWCC ** United States Navy SEALs


See also

* Intelligence collection management * List of intelligence gathering disciplines * Special Activities Center


References


External links


Long Range Surveillance: True test for ‘quiet professional’

Eyes Behind the Lines: US Army Long-Range Reconnaissance and Surveillance Units


* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722023603/http://www.enlisted.info/field-manuals/fm-7-93-long-range-surveillance-unit-operations.shtml PDF downloadable version of the US Army’s Long Range Surveillance Unit Operations Field Manual]. (FM 7-93) This manual provides doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures on how Long Range Surveillance Units perform combat operations as a part of the Army's new Battlefield Surveillance Brigades.
LRSU: EYES OF THE COMMANDER
by Staff Sergeants Brent W. Dick and Kevin M. Lydon

by Mike Gifford
International Special Training Center and NATO celebrate 30 years of teaching special forces
(July 2, 2009) by Maj. Jennifer Johnson, 7th Army Joint Multinational Training Command Public Affairs {{DEFAULTSORT:Special Reconnaissance Intelligence gathering disciplines Special forces Reconnaissance