Sea foam at Ocean Beach in San Francisco -1 on 3-25-11

Sea foam, ocean foam, beach foam, or spume is a type of foam created by the agitation of

seawater Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has appro ...

, particularly when it contains higher concentrations of

dissolved organic matter Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the fraction of organic carbon operationally defined as that which can pass through a filter with a pore size typically between 0.22 and 0.7 micrometers. The fraction remaining on the filter is called parti ...

(including

proteins Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...

, lignins, and

lipids Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids in ...

) derived from sources such as the offshore breakdown of

algal blooms An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term ''algae'' encompasse ...

. These compounds can act as surfactants or foaming agents. As the seawater is churned by breaking waves in the

surf zone As ocean surface waves approach shore, they get taller and break, forming the foamy, bubbly surface called ''surf''. The region of breaking waves defines the surf zone, or breaker zone. After breaking in the surf zone, the waves (now reduced i ...

adjacent to the shore, the surfactants under these turbulent conditions trap air, forming persistent bubbles that stick to each other through

surface tension Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces at rest to shrink into the minimum surface area possible. Surface tension is what allows objects with a higher density than water such as razor blades and insects (e.g. water striders) t ...

. Sea foam is a global phenomenon, and it varies depending on location and the potential influence of the surrounding marine, freshwater, and/or terrestrial environments. Due to its low density and persistence, foam can be blown by strong on-shore winds from the beach face inland. Human activities, such as production, transport or spillage of petroleum products or detergents, can also contribute to the formation of sea foam.

Formation

Sea foam is formed under conditions that are similar to the formation of

sea spray Sea spray are aerosol particles formed from the ocean, mostly by ejection into Earth's atmosphere by bursting bubbles at the air-sea interface. Sea spray contains both organic matter and inorganic salts that form sea salt aerosol (SSA). SSA ha ...

. One of the main distinctions from sea spray formation is the presence of higher concentrations of dissolved organic matter from macrophytes and

phytoplankton Phytoplankton () are the autotrophic (self-feeding) components of the plankton community and a key part of ocean and freshwater ecosystems. The name comes from the Greek words (), meaning 'plant', and (), meaning 'wanderer' or 'drifter'. ...

. The dissolved organic matter in the surface water, which can be derived from the natural environment or human-made sources, provides stability to the resulting sea foam. Sea spray sea foam connection

The physical processes that contribute to sea foam formation are breaking surface waves, bubble entrainment, and whitecap formation. Breaking of surface waves injects air from the atmosphere into the water column, leading to bubble creation. These bubbles get transported around the top few meters of the surface ocean due to their

buoyancy Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the ...

. The smallest bubbles entrained in the water column dissolve entirely, leading to higher ratios of dissolved gases in the surface ocean. The bubbles that do not dissolve eventually make it back to the surface. As they rise, these bubbles accumulate

hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a hydrophobe). In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, ...

substances. Presence of dissolved organic matter stabilizes the bubbles, aggregating together as sea foam. Some studies on sea foam report that breaking of algal cells in times of heavy swells makes sea foam production more likely. Falling rain drops on the sea surface can also contribute to sea foam formation and destruction. There have been some non-mechanistic studies demonstrating increased sea foam formation due to high rainfall events. Turbulence in the surface mixed layer can affect the concentration of dissolved organic matter and aids in the formation of nutrient-dense foam.

Composition

The composition of sea foam is generally a mixture of decomposed organic materials, including

zooplankton Zooplankton are the animal component of the planktonic community ("zoo" comes from the Greek word for ''animal''). Plankton are aquatic organisms that are unable to swim effectively against currents, and consequently drift or are carried along by ...

algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular micr ...

(including

diatoms A diatom (Neo-Latin ''diatoma''), "a cutting through, a severance", from el, διάτομος, diátomos, "cut in half, divided equally" from el, διατέμνω, diatémno, "to cut in twain". is any member of a large group comprising sev ...

bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were am ...

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...

protozoans Protozoa (singular: protozoan or protozoon; alternative plural: protozoans) are a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris. Hist ...

, and vascular plant

detritus In biology, detritus () is dead particulate organic material, as distinguished from dissolved organic material. Detritus typically includes the bodies or fragments of bodies of dead organisms, and fecal material. Detritus typically hosts comm ...

, though each occurrence of sea foam varies in its specific contents. In some areas, sea foam is found to be made up of primarily

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...

, dominant in both fresh and old foam, as well as

and

carbohydrates In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or m ...

. The high protein and low carbohydrate concentration suggest that

sugars Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double ...

originally present in the surrounding mucilage created by algae or plant matter has been quickly consumed by bacteria. Additional research has shown that a small fraction of the dry weight in sea foam is organic carbon, which contains phenolics, sugars,

amino sugars In organic chemistry, an amino sugar (or more technically a 2-amino-2-deoxysugar) is a sugar molecule in which a hydroxyl group has been replaced with an amine group. More than 60 amino sugars are known, with one of the most abundant being ''N'' ...

, and

amino acids Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although hundreds of amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the alpha-amino acids, which comprise proteins. Only 22 alpha am ...

. In the

Bay of Fundy The Bay of Fundy (french: Baie de Fundy) is a bay between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with a small portion touching the U.S. state of Maine. It is an arm of the Gulf of Maine. Its extremely high tidal range is t ...

, high mortality rates of an abundant tube-dwelling

amphipod Amphipoda is an order of malacostracan crustaceans with no carapace and generally with laterally compressed bodies. Amphipods range in size from and are mostly detritivores or scavengers. There are more than 9,900 amphipod species so far descri ...

(''

Corophium volutator ''Corophium volutator'' is a species of amphipod crustacean in the family Corophiidae. It is found in mudflats of the northern Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It ...

)'' by natural die-offs as well as predation by migrating seabirds contributed to amino sugars released in the surrounding environment and thus, in sea foam. The organic matter in sea foam has been found to increase dramatically during phytoplankton blooms in the area. Some research has shown very high concentrations of microplankton in sea foam, with significantly higher numbers of autotrophic phytoplankton than heterotrophs Some foams are particularly rich in their diatom population which can make up the majority of the microalgal

biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bio ...

in some cases. A diversity of bacteria is also present in sea foam; old foam tends to have a higher density of bacteria. One study found that 95% of sea foam bacteria were rod-shaped, while the surrounding surface water contained mostly coccoid-form bacteria and only 5% - 10% rod-shaped bacteria. There is also seasonal variability of sea foam composition; in some regions there is a seasonal occurrence of pollen in sea foam which can alter its chemistry. Though foam is not inherently toxic, it may contain high concentrations of contaminants. Foam bubbles can be coated with or contain these materials which can include

petroleum Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crud ...

compounds,

pesticides Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and la ...

, and

herbicides Herbicides (, ), also commonly known as weedkillers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds.EPA. February 201Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates. Summary in press releasMain page fo ...

Longevity and stability

Structurally, sea foam is thermodynamically unstable, though some sea foam can persist in the environment for several days at most. There are two types of sea foam categorized based on their stability: 1) Unstable or transient foams have very short lifetimes of only seconds. The bubbles formed in sea foam may burst releasing aerosols into the air, contributing to

. 2) Metastable foams can have a lifetime of several hours to several days; their duration is sometimes attributed to small particles of

silica Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula , most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is ...

calcium Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar ...

, or

iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in ...

which contribute to foam stability and longevity. Additionally, seawater that contains released dissolved organic material from phytoplankton and macrophytic algae that is then agitated in its environment is most likely to produce stable, longer-lasting foam when compared with seawater lacking one of those components. For example, filtered seawater with added with the fronds of the

kelp Kelps are large brown algae seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera. Despite its appearance, kelp is not a plant - it is a heterokont, a completely unrelated group of organisms. Kelp grows in "underwa ...

, ''Ecklonia maxima,'' produced foam but it lacked the stability that unfiltered seawater provided. Additionally, kelp fronds that were maintained in flowing water therefore reducing their

mucus Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It ...

coating, were unable to help foam form. Different types of salt are also found to have varying effects on bubble proximity within sea foam, therefore contributing to its stability.

Ecological role

Food source

The presence of sea foam in the marine environment plays a number of ecological roles including providing sources of food and creating habitat. As a food source, sea foam with a stable composition is more important ecologically, as it is able to persist longer and can transport nutrients within the marine environment. Longer decay times result in a higher chance that energy contained in sea foam will move up the food web into higher

trophic level The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food web. A food chain is a succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it ...

s. In the Bay of Fundy for example, a tube-dwelling

, ''Corophium volutator,'' can potentially attain 70% of its nutritional requirements from the sugars and amino acids derived from sea foam in its environment. At times however, the sea foam was found to be toxic to this species. It is thought that high concentrations of phenolics and/or the occasional presence of heavy metals or pesticides incorporated into the sea foam from the sea surface contributed to its toxicity. On the west coast of

Cape Peninsula The Cape Peninsula ( af, Kaapse Skiereiland) is a generally mountainous peninsula that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean at the south-western extremity of the African continent. At the southern end of the peninsula are Cape Point and the Ca ...

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring coun ...

, sea foam often occurs in nearshore marine areas with large kelp beds during periods of strong westerly winds. It is thought that the foam generated in these conditions is an important food source for local organisms due to the presence of organic

in the sea foam.

Material transport

Sea foam also acts as a mode of transport for both organisms and nutrients within the marine environment and, at times, into the

intertidal The intertidal zone, also known as the foreshore, is the area above water level at low tide and underwater at high tide (in other words, the area within the tidal range). This area can include several types of habitats with various species ...

or terrestrial environments. Wave action can deposit foam into intertidal areas where it can remain when the tide recedes, bringing nutrients to the intertidal zone. Additionally, sea foam can become airborne in windy conditions, transporting materials between marine and terrestrial environments. The ability of sea foam to transport materials is also thought to benefit macroalgal organisms, as macroalgae propagules can be carried to different microenvironments, thus influencing the tidal landscape and contributing to new possible ecological interactions. As sea foam is a wet environment, it is conducive habitat to algal spores where propagules can attach to the substrate and avoid risk of dissemination. When sea foam contains fungi, it can also aid in the decomposition of plant and animal remains in coastal ecosystems.

Habitat

Additionally, sea foam is a habitat for a number of marine

microorganisms A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...

. Some research has shown the presence of various microphytoplanktonic, nanophytoplanktonic, and diatom groups in seafoam; the phytoplankton groups appeared in significantly higher abundance than in sea surface film and the top

pelagic zone The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be further divided into regions by depth (as illustrated on the right). The word ''pelagic'' is derived . The pelagic zone can be thought of as an imaginary cylinder or wa ...

Hazards

Toxicity

Naturally occurring sea foam is not inherently

toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a sub ...

; however, it can be exposed to high concentrations of contaminants in the surface microlayer derived from the breakdown of algal blooms, fossil fuel production and transport, and stormwater runoff. These contaminants contribute to the formation of noxious sea foam through

adsorption Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the ''adsorbate'' on the surface of the ''adsorbent''. This process differs from absorption, in which a ...

onto bubbles. Bubbles may burst and release toxins into the atmosphere in the form of sea spray or

aerosol An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas. Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Examples of natural aerosols are fog or mist, dust, forest exudates, and geyser steam. Examples of anthropogen ...

, or they may persist in foams. Toxins released through aerosols and breaking bubbles can be inhaled by humans. The microorganisms that occupy sea foams as habitat have increased susceptibility for contaminant exposure. Consequently, these toxic substances can be integrated into the trophic food web.

Harmful algal blooms

Foams can form following the degradation of

harmful algal blooms A harmful algal bloom (HAB) (or excessive algae growth) is an algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms by production of natural algae-produced toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are sometimes ...

(HABs). These are primarily composed of algal species, but can also consist of

dinoflagellates The dinoflagellates ( Greek δῖνος ''dinos'' "whirling" and Latin ''flagellum'' "whip, scourge") are a monophyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes constituting the phylum Dinoflagellata and are usually considered algae. Dinoflagellates ...

and

cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria (), also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of gram-negative bacteria that obtain energy via photosynthesis. The name ''cyanobacteria'' refers to their color (), which similarly forms the basis of cyanobacteria's common name, bl ...

. Biomass from algae in the bloom is integrated into sea foam in the sea surface microlayer. When the impacted sea foam breaks down, toxins from the algae are released into the air causing respiratory issues and occasionally initiating asthma attacks. ''Phaeocystis globosa'' is one algal species that is considered problematic, as observed in a study in the Netherlands. Its high biomass accumulation allows it to create large quantities of toxic foam that often wash onto beaches. ''P. globosa'' blooms are initiated in areas of high nutrient availability, often affiliated with coastal locations with a lot of stormwater runoff and

eutrophication Eutrophication is the process by which an entire body of water, or parts of it, becomes progressively enriched with minerals and nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. It has also been defined as "nutrient-induced increase in phyt ...

. Studies suggest that the development of foam is directly correlated to blooms caused by ''P. globosa'', despite that foam formation typically occurs approximately two weeks after the appearance of an algal bloom offshore. Organic material from ''P. globosa'' was observed decomposing while suspended at the sea surface, but was not observed lower in the water column. ''P. globosa'' is also considered a nuisance species because its large foam formations impair the public's ability to enjoy the beach.

Human activities

While sea foam is a common result of the agitation of seawater mixing with organic material in the surface ocean, human activities can contribute to the production of excess and often toxic foam. In addition to the organic oils, acids, and proteins that amass in the sea surface microlayer, compounds derived from petroleum production and transport, synthetic surfactants, and pesticide use can enter the sea surface and be incorporated into foam. The pollutants present can also affect the persistence of the foam produced. Crude oil discharged from tankers, motor oil, sewage, and detergents from polluted runoff can create longer-lasting foams. In one study,

polychlorinated biphenyls Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are highly carcinogenic chemical compounds, formerly used in industrial and consumer products, whose production was banned in the United States by the Toxic Substances Control Act in 1979 and internationally by ...

(PCBs), a

persistent organic pollutant Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), sometimes known as "forever chemicals", are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic chemicals that adversel ...

, were found to amass in sea foams.

Natural gas Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbon d ...

terminals have been cited as contributors to the production of modified foams due to the process of using seawater to convert natural gas to liquified natural gas. One study showed a much greater abundance of heterotrophic

prokaryotes A prokaryote () is a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The word ''prokaryote'' comes from the Greek πρό (, 'before') and κάρυον (, 'nut' or 'kernel').Campbell, N. "Biology:Concepts & Con ...

(archaea and bacteria) and cyanobacteria in foam that was generated near a liquified natural gas terminal. These prokaryotes were able to recycle chemical materials discharged from the terminal, which enhanced microbial growth. Additionally, higher levels of total organic carbon (TOC) and plankton biomass were recorded in foam generated in close proximity to the terminal. Organic carbon was transferred readily into the pelagic food web after uptake by prokaryotes and ingestion by grazers.

Notable occurrences

* 24 August 2007: A large buildup of sea foam occurred on the coast of Yamba, northern New South Wales. * January–February 2008: Sea foam occurrences at

Caloundra Caloundra ( ) is a coastal town and the southernmost town in the Sunshine Coast Region in South East Queensland, Australia. Geography Caloundra is north of the Brisbane central business district. Caloundra is accessible from Landsborough ...

and

Point Cartwright Point Cartwright is a rocky headland at the mouth of the Mooloolah River in Queensland, Australia, renowned for its scenic beauty and landmark lighthouse, Point Cartwright Light. It is located 14 km north of Caloundra. History The headland w ...

Queensland ) , nickname = Sunshine State , image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , establishe ...

Sunshine Coast Sunshine Coast may refer to: * Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia **Sunshine Coast Region, a local government area of Queensland named after the region **Sunshine Coast Stadium * Sunshine Coast (British Columbia), geographic subregion of the Br ...

attracted world-wide media attention.A. Lander
The foam is back!
''Sunshine Coast Daily'', 20 February 2008. Retrieved 5 November 2010. * December 2011: The coast road at Cleveleys,

Lancashire Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated Lancs) is the name of a historic county, ceremonial county, and non-metropolitan county in North West England. The boundaries of these three areas differ significantly. The non-metropolitan county of Lancas ...

was swamped by meter-high drifts of sea foam. * 2012: During live coverage of Hurricane Irene in

Ocean City, Maryland Ocean City, officially the Town of Ocean City, is an Atlantic resort town in Worcester County, Maryland along the East Coast of the United States. The population was 6,844 at the 2020 U.S. census, although during summer weekends the city hosts b ...

, Tucker Barnes was covered in sea foam. * 24–25 September 2012: Following storms and high winds, the beach front of the Footdee area of

Aberdeen Aberdeen (; sco, Aiberdeen ; gd, Obar Dheathain ; la, Aberdonia) is a city in North East Scotland, and is the third most populous city in the country. Aberdeen is one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas (as Aberdeen City), a ...

was engulfed with sea foam. * 27–28 January 2013: The

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...

had masses of foam wash up on land from ex-tropical cyclone

Oswald Oswald may refer to: People *Oswald (given name), including a list of people with the name *Oswald (surname), including a list of people with the name Fictional characters *Oswald the Reeve, who tells a tale in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''The Canterbur ...

. * June 2016: Sea foam occurred across the East coast of Australia, whipped up by storms. * 28 March 2017: Sea foam was generated by Cyclone Debbie at Sarina Beach in Queensland, Australia. * 16 October 2017: Hurricane Ophelia covered Cleveleys,

with spume. * January 2018: Storm Eleanor causes widespread foam to appear across coastal Europe. * 11 October 2019: Subtropical storm Melissa brought sea foam to Nantasket Beach in

Hull, Massachusetts Hull is a town in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States, located on a peninsula at the southern edge of Boston Harbor. Its population was 10,072 at the 2020 United States Census, 2020 census. Hull is the smallest town by land area in Pl ...

. * 21 January 2020: Storm Gloria floods

Tossa de Mar Tossa de Mar () is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain, located on the coastal Costa Brava, about 103 kilometres north of Barcelona and 100 kilometres south of the French border. It is accessible through Girona Airport, some distance north. The G ...

Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...

, with thick sea foam on top of major flooding. * 11 May 2020: Five surfers die in The Netherlands, presumably upon drowning after becoming disoriented in over 2 meters thick sea foam. * 13 July 2020: The

Cape Town Cape Town ( af, Kaapstad; , xh, iKapa) is one of South Africa's three capital cities, serving as the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. It is the legislative capital of the country, the oldest city in the country, and the second largest ...

storm,

References

External links

*
April 2007 Storm Photo Gallery
' Lane Memorial Library, Hampton, New Hampshire. Accessed 5 November 2010

''Newscientist.com'', Issue 1837, 5 September 1992. Article preview. Accessed 5 November 2010
Blanket of white foam covers Aberdeen coast
- Guardian video. Accessed 25 September 2012
Sea Foam Video on YouTubeSea foam covering a swimmer, Australia Gold Coast
{{coastal geography

Sea The sea, connected as the world ocean or simply the ocean, is the body of salty water that covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The word sea is also used to denote second-order sections of the sea, such as the Mediterranean Sea, ...

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