Sangley (English plural: ''Sangleys''; Spanish plural: ''Sangleyes'') and Mestizo de Sangley (Sangley mestizo, ''mestisong Sangley'', ''chino mestizo'' or Chinese mestizo) are archaic terms used in the

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

to describe a person of pure

overseas Chinese Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese. Terminology () or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ref ...

ancestry, or ''Mestizo de Sangley,'' which are persons of mixed Chinese and native Filipino ancestry (the latter were referred to in es,

Indio Indio may refer to: Places * Indio, Bovey Tracey, an historic estate in Devon, England * Indio, California, a city in Riverside County, California, United States People with the name * Indio (musician), Canadian musician Gordon Peterson * Índi ...

, lit=Indian, as

natives Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...

of the

East Indies The East Indies (or simply the Indies), is a term used in historical narratives of the Age of Discovery. The Indies refers to various lands in the East or the Eastern hemisphere, particularly the islands and mainlands found in and around ...

) respectively during the Spanish Colonial Era in the

. The Sangley Chinese were ancestors to both modern Chinese Filipinos and modern

Filipino mestizo In the Philippines, Filipino Mestizo ( es, mestizo (masculine) / mestiza (feminine); Filipino/ tl, Mestiso (masculine) / Mestisa (feminine)) or colloquially ''Tisoy'', is a name used to refer to people of mixed native Filipino and any forei ...

descendants of the ''Mestizos de Sangley''. (These were Chinese mestizos, mixed descendants of Sangley Chinese and native Filipinos), who were ''mestizos'' (mixed peoples) under the

Spanish Colonial Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its predece ...

, classified together with other

Filipino mestizos In the Philippines, Filipino Mestizo ( es, mestizo (masculine) / mestiza (feminine); Filipino/ tl, Mestiso (masculine) / Mestisa (feminine)) or colloquially ''Tisoy'', is a name used to refer to people of mixed native Filipino and any forei ...

. The Spanish had such categories as ''Mestizos de Español'' (descendants of colonial-era ethnic Spanish and native-born Filipinos), the ''Tornatrás'' (Spanish-Chinese mestizos, descendants of colonial-era

Spanish Filipinos Spanish Filipinos ( es, español filipino / hispano filipino / castellano filipino; cbk, español filipino / hispano filipino / conio; Filipino/ tl, Kastilà / Espanyól / Tisoy / Konyo; ceb, Katsílà / Ispaniyul; hil, Katsílà / Espany� ...

and Sangley Chinese), the ''Mestizos de

Bombay Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — List of renamed Indian cities and states#Maharashtra, the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' fin ...

'' (Indian mestizos, descendants of colonial-era Indian Filipinos and native Filipinos), ''Mestizos de Japóneses'' (Japanese mestizos, descendants of colonial-era Japanese Filipinos and native Filipinos), etc. The

had entered the

as traders prior to Spanish colonization. That development increased some work and business opportunities. Many emigrated to the Philippines, establishing concentrated communities first in

Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populated ...

and throughout the island of

Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...

, then in other cities and settlements throughout the archipelago from

Visayas The Visayas ( ), or the Visayan Islands ( Visayan: ''Kabisay-an'', ; tl, Kabisayaan ), are one of the three principal geographical divisions of the Philippines, along with Luzon and Mindanao. Located in the central part of the archipelago, ...

, and

Mindanao Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...

. Other Filipino terms that refer to Chinese or

Filipinos Filipinos ( tl, Mga Pilipino) are the people who are citizens of or native to the Philippines. The majority of Filipinos today come from various Austronesian ethnolinguistic groups, all typically speaking either Filipino, English and/or other ...

with

overseas Overseas may refer to: * ''Overseas'' (album), a 1957 album by pianist Tommy Flanagan and his trio *Overseas (band), an American indie rock band * "Overseas" (song), a 2018 song by American rappers Desiigner and Lil Pump * "Overseas" (Tee Grizzley ...

Chinese ancestry: * ''Intsik'' (derived from the

Philippine Hokkien Philippine Hokkien is a dialect of the Hokkien language of the Southern Min branch, primarily spoken vernacularly by Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines, where it serves as the local Chinese '' lingua franca'', primarily spoken as an oral l ...

) is the native colloquial informal term in

Tagalog Tagalog may refer to: Language * Tagalog language, a language spoken in the Philippines ** Old Tagalog, an archaic form of the language ** Batangas Tagalog, a dialect of the language * Tagalog script, the writing system historically used for Taga ...

/ Filipino and other

Philippine languages The Philippine languages or Philippinic are a proposed group by R. David Paul Zorc (1986) and Robert Blust (1991; 2005; 2019) that include all the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia—except Sama–Bajaw (language ...

used to refer to

Chinese people The Chinese people or simply Chinese, are people or ethnic groups identified with China, usually through ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, or other affiliation. Chinese people are known as Zhongguoren () or as Huaren () by speakers of sta ...

in general, albeit now mostly retired in favor of 'Tsino' (see below) because of pejorative connotations. * ''Chinoy'' or ''Tsinoy'' (derived from a

Blend A blend is a mixture of two or more different things or substances; e.g., a product of a mixer or blender. Blend Blend may also refer to: * Blend word, a word formed from parts of other words * ''Blend'' (album), a 1996 album by BoDeans * B ...

of es, Chino, lit=Chinese or with or the ) is a modern term currently used in

Philippine English Philippine English (similar and related to American English) is any variety of English native to the Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos and English learners in the Philippines from adja ...

and

/ Filipino and other Philippines languages to refer to a person of

Chinese descent Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese. Terminology () or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ref ...

born in the

or Filipinos with Chinese blood. * ''Chino'' or ''Tsino'' is a term derived from

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...

that literally means "Chinese", where "''Tsino''" is the formal term used in

/ Filipino and other

. *''Chinito'' or ''Tsinito'' is a term derived from

that means "a young Chinese man", from es, Chino, lit=Chinese with . "''Tsinito''" is the form used in

/ Filipino and other

. *''Chinita'' or ''Tsinita'' is the feminine form of the above referring to "a young Chinese woman", also from es, Chino, lit=Chinese with . "''Tsinita''" is the form used in

/ Filipino and other

. * ''Chekwa'' or ''Tsekwa'' is an offensive derogatory slang or slur used to refer to both

in general and

with Chinese blood. It was derived from Cebuano Bisaya as an

elided In linguistics, an elision or deletion is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase. However, these terms are also used to refer more narrowly to cases where two words are run toget ...

compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struc ...

of + , from "'' Insik wákang, káun, kalibang!'' ", which was an old

derogatory A pejorative or slur is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or a disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something. It is also used to express criticism, hostility, or disregard. Sometimes, a ...

Visayan

children's A child ( : children) is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. The legal definition of ''child'' generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person young ...

limerick Limerick ( ; ga, Luimneach ) is a western city in Ireland situated within County Limerick. It is in the province of Munster and is located in the Mid-West which comprises part of the Southern Region. With a population of 94,192 at the 2 ...

during the Late Spanish Colonial era, where "'' Insik''"/"'' Intsik''" was originally derived from the

, while "'' wákang''" was originally derived from the

, while the last two words come from and , forming the full

"'' Chinese ( laborer), I work, eat, and shit!''" from the Late Spanish Colonial era when opium dens were rampant and many

migrants worked as low-wage

laborers A laborer (or labourer) is a person who works in manual labor types in the construction industry workforce. Laborers are in a working class of wage-earners in which their only possession of significant material value is their labor. Industries ...

Etymology

There are multiple versions of the interpretation on the word ''Sangley,'' especially as it is also used in historical place names such as ''Punta Sangley'' (

Sangley Point Naval Station Sangley Point was a communication and hospital facility of the United States Navy which occupied the northern portion of the Cavite City peninsula and is surrounded by Manila Bay, approximately eight miles southwest of Manila, th ...

), the northern promontory point and former US naval base headquarters in the

Cavite Peninsula The Cavite Peninsula is a peninsula extending northeast into Manila Bay from the coastal town of Noveleta in Cavite province in the Philippines. The northern tip of the peninsula is geographically the northernmost part of the Province of Cavite. ...

''.'' According to Go Bon Juan, the most commonly accepted version is usually that the term "sangley" comes from the

Hokkien The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...

, which is consistent with the business background of the early Chinese in the Philippines. According to Saul Hofileña Jr on the history of

, the name supposedly derived from ''xiangli, a Chinese word for trader'', which became "sangley" to the

Spaniards Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ...

. According to Go Bon Juan, Hofileña had apparently based this on the pronunciation of the word "trader" in , which Go Bon Juan considered "a rather literal term uncommon among early Chinese in the Philippines." Another cited possible etymon is the

Cantonese Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding a ...

, which appeared beside "Sangley" labeled in the

Boxer Codex The ''Boxer Codex'' is a late sixteenth century Spanish manuscript that was produced in the Philippines. The document contains seventy-five colored illustrations of the peoples of China, the Philippines, Java, the Moluccas, the Ladrones, and Sia ...

(circa 1590),

Dasmariñas Dasmariñas (colloquially shortened to Dasma), officially the City of Dasmariñas ( fil, Lungsod ng Dasmariñas), is a 1st class component city in the province of Cavite, Philippines. With a land area of and a population of 703,141 people ac ...

record to the

King of Spain , coatofarms = File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Spanish_Monarch.svg , coatofarms_article = Coat of arms of the King of Spain , image = Felipe_VI_in_2020_(cropped).jpg , incumbent = Felipe VI , incumbentsince = 19 Ju ...

, which also contains the probable earliest romanization of Japan as "Iapon." It is said that the late William Henry Scott, an authority on

Philippine history Earliest hominin activity in the Philippine archipelago is dated back to at least 709,000 years ago. ''Homo luzonensis'', a species of archaic humans, was present on the island of Luzon at least 67,000 years ago. The earliest known anatomically ...

, had seen this picture and supported this version. Sangley literally means "merchant traveler" or "frequent visitor." The majority of Chinese sojourners, traders, and settlers in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period came from southern Fujian and spoke Hokkien, leaving their mark on Filipino culture (especially the

cuisine A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs, and ingredients combine to ...

). Although ''mestizo de sangley'' literally means "mixed-race (person) of business," it implies a "mixed-race (person) of Chinese and indigenous/Indio (Filipino) descent" because many early Chinese immigrants were traders and intermixed with the local population. Outside the Philippines, the Spanish word ''mestizo'' (without the qualifying ''de sangley'') is normally used to refer to persons of mixed European and non-European ancestry, but the lower number of European mestizos in the Philippines made the term ''mestizo'' come to mean ''mestizo de sangley''. For example, Benito Legarda used this definition when talking to the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

Philippine Commission (1899–1900), citing

Wenceslao Retana Wenceslao "Wenchesco" Emilio Retana y Gamboa (September 28, 1862 – January 21, 1924), also known as W.E. Retana or Wenceslao E. Retana, was a 19th-century Spanish polymath. He was a civil servant, colonial administrator, writer, biographer, p ...

's ''Diccionario de filipinismos'' (1921). The term ''chino mestizo'' was also used interchangeably with ''mestizo de sangley''. In 16th to 19th century Spanish Philippines, the term ''mestizo de sangley'' differentiated ethnic Chinese from other types of island mestizos (such as those of mixed

and

ancestry, who were fewer in number. Their Indio ancestry (generally on the maternal side) made the Chinese mestizos be granted the legal status of colonial subjects of Spain, with certain rights and privileges denied to the pure-blooded Chinese immigrants (''sangleys''). Today, ''

Tsinoy Chinese Filipinos; tl, Tsinoy, / Tsinong Pilipino, ; Hokkien in the Philippines, Philippine Hokkien , Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines, Mandarin (also known as Filipino Chinese in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent, mo ...

'' or '' Chinoy'' (from

portmanteau A portmanteau word, or portmanteau (, ) is a blend of wordsFilipino word ''Tsino'' or ''Chino'' in

, and the Filipino word ''Pinoy'') is widely used in Filipino/

and other

to describe a ''Sangley'', a person born of pure or majority ethnic

Han Chinese The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...

descent or of mixed native Filipino and Han Chinese ancestry or a person with likewise similar features.

Background

''Mestizo de sangley'' is a term that arose during Spanish colonization of the Philippines, where circumstances were different from colonial settlement of the Americas. During the

Spanish colonization of the Americas Spain began colonizing the Americas under the Crown of Castile and was spearheaded by the Spanish . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, British America, and some small regions ...

of the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous male Spaniards (''

conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, ...

s'', explorers, missionaries, and soldiers) settled there. For decades most Spanish men made liaisons and intermarried with

indigenous Indigenous may refer to: *Indigenous peoples *Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention *Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band *Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...

women; their children were considered

mixed race Mixed race people are people of more than one race or ethnicity. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mixed race people in a variety of contexts, including ''multiethnic'', ''polyethnic'', occasionally ''bi-ethn ...

and were called ''mestizo''. Male Chinese traders and workers came during the colonial period, most of whom intermarried with native women. The Spanish government classified the anyone who had ancestry from China as ''Sangley'' regardless of their ethnic makeup. Their mixed-race descendants with native women were classified as ''Mestizo de sangley''; they were also known as ''chino mestizos''. As an example, in the late 19th century, the author and activist

José Rizal José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (, ; June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896) was a Filipino nationalist, writer and polymath active at the end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is considered the national h ...

was classified as ''mestizo de sangley'' due to his partial Chinese ancestry. But he also had indigenous, Japanese, and Spanish ancestors, and he asked to be classified as ''Indio''.

History

Sangelys, detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)

Mestizos Sangley y Chino by Justiano Asuncion

Spanish explorers and conquistadors landed in '' Las Islas de Filipinas'', which they named in honor of

Philip II of Spain Philip II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I ( pt, Filipe I). (21 May 152713 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent ( es, Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from ...

. The Spanish colonization of the Philippines required more skilled laborers and they recruited Chinese immigrants. The economy became highly dependent upon the Chinese for their economic role as traders and artisans. Most of the Chinese living in the Manila area settled in a place called the Parían near

Intramuros Intramuros (Latin for "inside the walls") is the historic walled area within the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. It is administered by the Intramuros Administration with the help of the city government of Manila. Present-day ...

. The Spanish encouraged those China traders to convert to Catholicism. Many of the Chinese men married native women, and over time the multi-cultural ''mestizo de sangley''

caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultur ...

developed. Although the colonial government never required them to adopt Spanish surnames, in many cases they chose to change their Chinese names. They adopted names such as Lopez, Jalandoni, Palanca, Paterno, Rizal, Laurel, Osmeña, etc., or used a kind of transliteration and Spanish phonetic spelling to make them appear Hispanic by

concatenation In formal language theory and computer programming, string concatenation is the operation of joining character strings end-to-end. For example, the concatenation of "snow" and "ball" is "snowball". In certain formalisations of concatenat ...

, for example: Lacson, Landicho, Laoinco, Biazon, Gaspar, Tuazon, Ongpin, Yuchengco, Quebengco, Cojuangco, Cuyegkeng, Goquilay, Yaptinchay, Yuchenco, Yupangco, Sylianco, Tanchanco, Tiongson, Tanbengco, Tanjuatco, Locsin, Tetangco, etc. In 1574, a few years after the Spaniards established

as the colonial capital of the Philippines, the Chinese pirate

Limahong Limahong, Lim Hong, or Lin Feng (; March 7, 1499 – ?), well known as Ah Hong () or Lim-A-Hong or Limahon (), was a Chinese pirate and warlord who invaded the northern Philippine Islands in 1574. He built up a reputation for his constant rai ...

() attacked Manila and burned it to the ground. He retreated later to other places around the Luzon coast, where his forces continued killing and looting. Some of them deserted Limahong, settled down and interbred with local women. In 1603 a trader revolt took place right after a visit to Manila by three official

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language ...

representatives who arrived in a large fleet of ships. They said they were searching for "a mountain of gold". This claim prompted the Spanish to conclude that there was an imminent invasion from China in the making. At the time the local mixed Arab and Iranian descended traders from China who the Spaniards called Sangley or Chinese because of their long residence from China outnumbered the Spaniards by twenty to one, and Spanish authorities feared that they would join the expected invading forces. The revolt was led by

Joan Bautista de Vera Joan may refer to: People and fictional characters *Joan (given name), including a list of women, men and fictional characters *:Joan of Arc, a French military heroine *Joan (surname) Weather events *Tropical Storm Joan (disambiguation), multiple ...

, a wealthy Catholic Sangley who was highly esteemed by the Spaniards, and feared and respected by the Sangley. During preparations, he had continued to mingle with the Spanish and posed as their confidant. De Vera carried out a census to ascertain the number of men of his race. When he found that there were enough Chinese men to carry out the revolt, he gave orders to construct a fort and quarters at a hidden location in Tondo, where rice, provisions, and weapons were stored. The Sangley began to gather there, planning the insurrection for

St. Andrew's Day Saint Andrew's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Andrew or Andermas, is the feast day of Andrew the Apostle. It is celebrated on 30 November (according to Gregorian calendar) and on 13 December (according to Julian calendar). Saint Andrew is ...

, but when they realized that their intentions had been discovered, decided to take action before that day. On the eve of St. Francis, two thousand Sangleys met in the quarters. Joan Bautista de Vera told the governor that the Sangleys were meeting on the opposite side of the river. Suspicious, the governor had Bautista de Vera arrested and carefully guarded. He was later executed for his part in the revolt. The insurrection was put down by joint Spanish, native and Japanese forces led by the young interim Governor-General,

Luis Pérez Dasmariñas Luis Pérez Dasmariñas y Páez de Sotomayor was a Spanish soldier and governor of the Philippines from December 3, 1593 to July 14, 1596. In 1596, he sent unsuccessful expeditions to conquer Cambodia and Mindanao. Pérez Dasmariñas was a knight ...

. In the event, they killed many of the 20,000 mixed Sangley Arab and Iranian descended traders who resided in the colony. In the aftermath, the Chinese

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han pe ...

government denounced those events, wanting to preserve their commercial interests. In 1605 a Fukien official issued a letter saying that the Arab and Iranian descended traders who had participated in the revolt were unworthy of China's protection anyway, describing them as "deserters of the tombs of their ancestors". At the time, Chinese rulers banned emigration by their subjects; they considered those who left their ancestral homeland to settle in foreign lands as traitors who "ceased to be Chinese." The ban was liberalized under the 1868 Treaty of Burlingame between China and the

, and although it was not officially lifted until 1893, it had not prevented tens of thousands of Chinese from emigrating for work and trade, both to Southeast Asia and later to the Americas. In 1662, the Chinese pirate Cheng Ch'eng-kung (

Koxinga Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping (; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), better known internationally as Koxinga (), was a Ming loyalist general who resisted the Qing conquest of China in the 17th century, fighting them on China's southeastern ...

or ) attacked several towns on

's coast and demanded tribute from the colonial government, threatening to attack Manila if his demands were not met. The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila. Although he never invaded and most of the Manila Chinese distanced themselves from the attacks and demands by Koxinga, his actions provoked a rising anti-Chinese sentiment. Hordes of Filipinos massacred hundreds of Chinese in the Manila area.

Economy

Tipos del País Scene by José Honorato Lozano

Most of the ''sangleys'' worked as skilled artisans or traders. Aside from shopkeeping, the ''sangleys'' earned their livelihood as carpenters, tailors, cobblers, locksmiths, masons, metalsmiths, weavers, bakers, carvers and other skilled craftsmen. As metalsmiths, they helped to build the Spanish galleons in shipyards located in

Cavite Cavite, officially the Province of Cavite ( tl, Lalawigan ng Kabite; Chavacano: ''Provincia de Cavite''), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Located on the southern shores of Manila Bay and southw ...

. As masons, they built ''Intramuros'' and its numerous structures. Chino Chanchaulero by José Honorato Lozano

The Spanish gave the ''mestizos de sangley'' special rights and privileges as colonial subjects of the Spanish Crown and as baptized converts to the Catholic Church. They were given preference to handle the domestic trade of the islands. In addition, they were allowed to lease land from the friar estates through the ''inquilino'' or lessee system, that allowed them to sublet those lands. Later, the ''mestizos de sangley'' came to acquire many native lands, chiefly through a legal instrument called ''pacto de retro'' or contract of retrocession. Through this instrument, a

moneylender In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations, etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that de ...

extended loans to farmers, who in exchange for cash, pawned their land with the option of buying it back. In the event of default, the moneylender recovered the loan by foreclosing on the land from the farmer. Many local farmers lost their lands to ''mestizos de sangley'' in this manner. The Spanish Galleon Trade (1565–1815) tied China to Europe via Manila and

Acapulco, Mexico Acapulco de Juárez (), commonly called Acapulco ( , also , nah, Acapolco), is a city and major seaport in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, south of Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semicircular bay and has bee ...

. Acting as a transshipment port, Manila attracted Chinese traders from

Xiamen Xiamen ( , ; ), also known as Amoy (, from Hokkien pronunciation ), is a sub-provincial city in southeastern Fujian, People's Republic of China, beside the Taiwan Strait. It is divided into six districts: Huli, Siming, Jimei, Tong' ...

(Amoy); they traveled in armed ships to trade with the Spanish. Chinese luxury goods, such as

silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from th ...

porcelain Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises main ...

and finely crafted furniture, were exchanged for

silver Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...

from Mexican and Peruvian mines. Twice a year the galleons sailed across the

Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the conti ...

from Manila to Acapulco and back. The goods were later shipped to Spain via

Veracruz Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...

, a

Gulf Coast The Gulf Coast of the United States, also known as the Gulf South, is the coast, coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico. The list of U.S. states and territories by coastline, coastal states that have a shor ...

port on the

Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...

side of Mexico. Chino Corredor by José Honorato Lozano

As the Spanish galleons carried mostly Chinese luxury goods destined for Europe, Mexicans called them ''náos de China'' (Chinese ships). The Spanish galleon trade was mainly a business affair involving Spanish officials in Manila, Mexico and Spain, and Chinese traders from Xiamen. The highly lucrative galleon trade carried few products originating from the Philippine islands or involving resident domestic traders. The trade was so profitable that Mexican silver became an unofficial currency of Southern China; an estimated one-third of silver mined from the Americas flowed into China during that period. The Spanish galleons also transported Filipino crew and militia men to the Americas, among which were many Sangleys; Some of them chose to settle in Mexico,

Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is bord ...

, and parts of present United States, specially

California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...

. Americans called these immigrants ''Manilamen'' and the Mexicans called them ''los indios Chinos.'' Apart from the Portuguese-controlled

Macao Macau or Macao (; ; ; ), officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (MSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China in the western Pearl River Delta by the South China Sea. With a po ...

-Manila trade in the 17th century and the British-controlled

Madras Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...

-Manila trade in the 18th century, it was chiefly the Spanish-controlled Manila-Acapulco trade that sustained the colony for much of the period. When the trade ended with the last ship's sailing in 1815, the Spaniards needed new sources of revenue. With the

Spanish American wars of independence The Spanish American wars of independence (25 September 1808 – 29 September 1833; es, Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas) were numerous wars in Spanish America with the aim of political independence from Spanish rule during the early ...

resulting in the loss of Spain's colonies in the Americas, the Spanish government quickly lost its position of pre-eminence amongst the

Western powers The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.

. After losing

Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...

when it became independent in 1821, Spain took over direct control of the Philippines. It had been governed by the ''Virreinato de Nueva España'' or Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) during much of the colonial period. Coinciding with the advent of

steamships A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a type of steam-powered vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically move (turn) propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships ...

and the consequent expansion of the global economy, the Spaniards decided to open up the Philippines to foreign trade. They appointed Governor-General Basco y Vargas, who was instrumental in establishing the

tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...

monopoly in the Philippines, though with much help from other Spanish interests and reliance on Filipino local elites, called the ''principalía.'' As the subsistence economy shifted to an export crop economy, for

sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or do ...

, abaca and tobacco, in 1834 the Spanish allowed both non-Spanish Westerners and Chinese immigrants to settle anywhere in the islands. The ''mestizos de sangley'' had been displaced from tobacco marketing as the Spanish established their monopoly. Some wholesale and retail traders converted their capital into larger landholdings. They developed sugar

plantations A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Th ...

for the new export market, particularly in Central Luzon, and on the islands of

Cebu Cebu (; ceb, Sugbo), officially the Province of Cebu ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Sugbo; tl, Lalawigan ng Cebu; hil, Kapuroan sang Sugbo), is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consists of a main island and 16 ...

Iloilo Iloilo (), officially the Province of Iloilo ( hil, Kapuoran sang Iloilo; krj, Kapuoran kang Iloilo; tl, Lalawigan ng Iloilo), is a province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas region. Its capital is the City of Iloilo, the ...

and

Negros Negros is the fourth largest and third most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of . Negros is one of the many islands of the Visayas, in the central part of the country. The predominant inhabitants of the island region a ...

. The ''mestizos de sangley'' took advantage of the rapid changes as the colonial economy was integrated into the markets of the Western world. From the late 18th century through much of the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged development of tobacco as another commodity crop, controlling it as a monopoly. Cultivation was concentrated in

Cagayan Cagayan ( ), officially the Province of Cagayan ( ilo, Probinsia ti Cagayan; ibg, Provinsiya na Cagayan; itv, Provinsiya ya Cagayan; fil, Lalawigan ng Cagayan), is a province in the Philippines located in the Cagayan Valley region, coverin ...

, where the Spanish relied on the principalía to have their workers produce and deliver the tobacco. With the opening of the colony to foreign trade in 1834, Western merchants established import/export and financial companies in ''

Binondo Binondo () is a district in Manila and is referred to as the city's Chinatown. Its influence extends beyond to the places of Quiapo, Santa Cruz, San Nicolas and Tondo. It is the oldest Chinatown in the world, established in 1594 by the S ...

''. They partnered with Chinese wholesale/retail traders throughout the islands. The ''mestizos de sangley'' shifted to the export crop economy by developing and enlarging

plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Th ...

s devoted to agricultural commodities. The increase in the late 19th century of British and American commercial interests in Manila coincided with the British founding of a network of treaty port-cities in

Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a List of cities in China, city and Special administrative regions of China, special ...

Singapore Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bor ...

and

Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four Direct-administered municipalities of China, direct-administered municipalities of the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the ...

. They also expanded the ''

Nanyang Nanyang is the romanization of two common Chinese place names. It may refer to: Written as 南洋 (Southern Ocean) * Nanyang (region), a Chinese term denoting the Southeast Asian lands surrounding the South China Sea ;China * Nanyang Fleet, Qing ...

'' trade, previously limited to

Quanzhou Quanzhou, alternatively known as Chinchew, is a prefecture-level port city on the north bank of the Jin River, beside the Taiwan Strait in southern Fujian, China. It is Fujian's largest metropolitan region, with an area of and a popul ...

and

. In 1868, the United States and China signed the Treaty of Burlingame, legalizing and liberalizing Chinese emigration, which had been illegal since the Ming dynasty. This led to a rapid increase in the population of

Overseas Chinese Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese. Terminology () or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ref ...

traders in the Philippines. By the 1870s, the economic dominance of the British and American merchants and their Chinese trading partners was said by some observers to turn the Philippines into an "Anglo-Chinese Colony under the Spanish Flag".

Politics

Chino Comerciante & India de Manila by José Honorato Lozano

The Spanish authorities had initially depended upon the ''sangleys'' to both supply the labor and manage the colonial economy of the islands. However, after the attacks of the Chinese pirate Limahong, the Spanish colonists viewed the ''sangleys'' differently, fearing them as enemy aliens who posed a security threat due to their number. To protect their precarious position, the Spaniards enacted policies designed to control the residents of the islands by means of racial segregation and cultural assimilation, such as limiting the number of resident ''sangleys'' to around 6,000, a measure that was proved soon impossible to maintain. The Spanish founded the ''Parían'' in 1581 in what became

as the official marketplace and designated residence for the ''sangleys'' who did not convert to Catholicism. Circumventing a royal decree outlawing the ''sangleys'', as governor-general of the Philippines,

Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas (1 January 1519 – 25 October 1593Some sources say October 19 or October 23) was a Spanish politician, diplomat, military officer and imperial official. He was the seventh governor-general of the Philippines from Ma ...

created

in 1594 for the Catholic ''sangleys'' and their ''indio'' wives and their ''mestizos de sangley'' children and descendants. He gave the ''sangleys'' and ''mestizo de sangleys'' a land grant in perpetuity. They were allowed to establish a self-governing organization, called ''Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo'' (Guild of Mestizos of Binondo). The Spanish colonists attempted to assimilate the ''sangleys'' into the Hispanic culture and converted many to

Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

. They allowed Catholic ''sangleys'' to intermarry with ''indio'' women. They did not recognize marriages of the unconverted ''sangleys'', as they did not officially sanction marriages among subjects that were performed outside the Catholic Church. Chinese mestizo costume

Beginning in 1600, the first generation of ''mestizos de sangley'' formed a small community of several hundred in Binondo. This is where San Lorenzo Ruiz grew up in the early 1600s. He was martyred under torture in Japan with three

missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...

; none would recant their Christian beliefs. Long venerated in the Philippines, he later was beatified by the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...

and canonized in 1987 as the first Filipino

saint In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. However, the use of the term ''saint'' depends on the context and denomination. In Catholic, Eastern Or ...

. During the 17th century, the Spaniards carried out four great massacres and expulsions against the unconverted ''sangleys,'' usually generated from real or imagined fears of an imminent invasion from China. In the aftermath, many ''sangleys'' converted at least nominally to Catholicism, adopted Hispanicized names, and intermarried with ''indio'' women. Contemporary 21st century historians have studied demographic and social changes in the Philippines during this period. They note the changes in how ''mestizo de sangley'' fared in Philippine society. In the late 18th century, the ''mestizo de sangley'' began to markedly improved their position. After the violence and turmoil of the Spanish expulsion of Chinese-Filipino population for having sided with the

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...

in their 1762 capture of Manila, The founding of Chinese mestizo regiments in the Philippines was part of

New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the A ...

's military modernization during the reformist Bourbon era. At the same time, New Spain created a colonial militia in Latin America, also enrolling ''mestizos'' there. While the colonies developed in distinct ways, there were similarities in the rise of the ''mestizo'' classes in Latin American and the Philippines. When colonial authorities accepted them into the militias and armed them, it was in recognition of their rising social position and integration into the colonial economies. After the Spanish colonists abolished the ''Parían'' in 1790, they allowed the ''sangleys'' to settle in Binondo. In the 19th century, the population of ''mestizos de sangley'' grew rapidly over the years as more Chinese male immigrants arrived, converted to Catholicism, settled in Binondo and intermarried with ''indio'' or ''mestizo de sangley'' women. With no legal restrictions on their movement, ''mestizos de sangley'' migrated to other areas in the course of work and business, such as Tondo, Bulacan, Pampanga, Bataan, Cavite, Cebu, Iloilo, Samar, Capiz, etc. The number of unconverted ''sangleys'' dropped from a high of 25,000 prior to the first great massacre of 1603 to below 10,000 by 1850. From the 18th century until the latter half of the 19th century, Spanish authorities came to depend upon the ''mestizos de sangley'' as the ''

bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. Th ...

'' of the colonial economy. From their concentration in Binondo, Manila, the ''mestizos de sangley'' migrated to Central Luzon, Cebu, Iloilo, Negros and Cavite to handle the domestic trade of the islands. From trading, they branched out into landleasing, moneylending and later landholding. With wealth, they gained the ability to give their children elite education at the best schools in the islands and later in Europe. Following the promulgation of the Cádiz Constitution of 1812, the Philippines was granted the status of a Spanish province, with representation in the

Spanish Cortes The Cortes Generales (; en, Spanish Parliament, lit=General Courts) are the bicameral legislative chambers of Spain, consisting of the Congress of Deputies (the lower house), and the Senate (the upper house). The Congress of Deputies meets i ...

. These subjects were granted Spanish citizenship, thus acquiring legal equality in the Philippines with Spanish-born Spaniards. Toward the end of Spanish rule in the 19th century, the ''mestizos de sangley'' identified as

, showing their identification with these islands. Also identifying as the "true sons of Spain", the ''mestizos de sangley'' tended to side with the white Spanish colonists during the numerous ''indio'' revolts against Spanish rule. In the late 19th century,

, a fifth-generation ''mestizo de sangley'', arose as an intellectual from the relatively wealthy, middle-class, Spanish-educated Filipinos known as ''Ilustrados''. He was among those who called for reforms in the administration of the colony, integration as a province of Spain, and political representation for the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes.

Culture

From the beginning of the colonial period in the Philippines, the Spanish administration had the goal of converting natives to

Missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...

were among the Spanish settlers in the colony. With the help of the colonial government, religious orders built traditional stone-and-brick churches throughout the islands in the Spanish or Mexican Baroque style. Constructed within the walled-city of

, San Agustin Church was the first stone church built in the archipelago. It became the spiritual center of Christianity in the Philippines, and also in Asia. The remains of

Miguel López de Legazpi Miguel López de Legazpi (12 June 1502 – 20 August 1572), also known as '' El Adelantado'' and ''El Viejo'' (The Elder), was a Spaniard who, from the age of 26, lived and built a career in Mexico (then the Viceroyalty of New Spain) and, ...

Juan de Salcedo Juan de Salcedo (; 1549 – March 11, 1576) was a Spanish- Novohispanic conquistador. He was born in Mexico in 1549 and he was the grandson of Miguel López de Legazpi and brother of Felipe de Salcedo. Salcedo was one of the soldiers who accompa ...

and

Martín de Goiti Martín de Goiti (c. 1534 – 1575) was one of the soldiers who accompanied the Spanish colonization of the East Indies and the Pacific in 1565. From his base in Mexico City, he led the expedition to Manila ordered by Miguel López de Legazpi in 15 ...

(who was killed during Limahong's siege) were interred in that church. The church was sacked during the Battle of Manila in 1762, before being rebuilt in 1854. The Spanish colonial government established schools and colleges run mostly by religious orders, including the

Colegio de San Juan de Letran The Colegio de San Juan de Letran, (transl: College of San Juan de Letran) also referred to by its acronym CSJL, is a private Catholic coeducational basic and higher education institution owned and run by the friars of the Order of Preachers i ...

, the

Ateneo Municipal , mottoeng = Light in the Lord , type = Private, research, non-profit, coeducational basic and higher education institution , established = December 10, 1859 , religious_affiliation = Roman Catholic (Jesuits) , academic_affi ...

, the Universidad de Santo Tomás in Manila, or the

Colegio de San Ildefonso The Colegio de San Ildefonso was an educational institution run by the Society of Jesus in Cebu City, Philippines in the then Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines. It was established by the Jesuits in 1595 thus making it the first Europe ...

in Cebu, that accepted all types of students, regardless of race, gender or financial status in the case of primary grade instruction. In 1863, the Spanish government established a modern system of free public education, the first of its kind in Asia. Binondo served as the traditional center of community life for the Catholic ''sangleys'' and ''mestizos de sangley''. The ''Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo'' was the official guild chartered to administer community affairs. Born in Binondo, San Lorenzo Ruiz was a ''mestizo de sangley'' who served as an altar boy in the Binondo Church (which has since been named after him). Established by the Spanish Dominicans for Catholic ''sangleys'', the Binondo Church is now known as the Minor Basilica of San Lorenzo Ruiz. It became the center site for the religious rites of the community. The Catholic ''mestizos de sangley'' expressed religious devotion with processions marking important occasions, such as the Feast of La Naval de Manila, commemorating the naval victory of the Spanish over the Dutch off Manila Bay in 1646. In the late 19th century, cosmopolitan

mercantilism Mercantilism is an economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. It promotes imperialism, colonialism, tariffs and subsidies on traded goods to achieve that goal. The policy aims to reduce ...

emerged in Binondo, at the same time that Western and

merchants entered the island's economy, which was being integrated into the global trading system. The Spaniards tended to be more isolated from the new urban environment. They lived in

, where Hispanic Catholicism dominated the walled city. The rapid urbanization elsewhere transformed the ethnic enclave of Binondo into a thriving commercial district within an expanding urban core. The overseas Chinese (

traditional Chinese A tradition is a belief or behavior (folk custom) passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examples include holidays ...

: 華僑;

pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese fo ...

: Huáqiáo) merchants essentially displaced the ''mestizos de sangley'' from their role as the domestic traders of the islands. Although officially under Spanish rule, cosmopolitan Binondo became the semi-official capital of an "Anglo-Chinese colony" in the late 19th-century Philippines. Chinese-Filipino merchants dominated the textile industry in Molo and Jaro. Iloilo produced ''sinamay'', a hand-woven cloth made from fine '' abaca'' threads, which was used for the casual ''camisa de chino''; ''jusi'' (Chinese term for raw

), a translucent fabric woven from silk yarn for the formal ''barong tagalog''; and ''piña'', a handwoven fabric made of

pineapple The pineapple (''Ananas comosus'') is a tropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae. The pineapple is indigenous to South America, where it has been cultivated for many centuri ...

fiber for heirloom garments. During the late 19th century, the ''mestizos de sangley'' wore embroidered ''barong tagalog'' while ''indios'' wore multicolored ''camisa de chino''. As a means of maintaining social stratification, the Spanish prohibited the ''indios'' from wearing European-style clothing, as a means of separating the groups. In food, Chinese-Filipinos adapted Hokkien food from

Fujian Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its ...

. They used indigenous ingredients and Spanish names to improvise what became part of an evolving creole Filipino cuisine. During the 19th century, noodle shops called ''panciterias'' serving ''comida China'' (Chinese food) dotted the islands. The ubiquitous ''pancit'' (meaning "

noodle Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures (for example, Chinese noodles, Filipino noodles, In ...

" from the Hokkien word ''pian-e-sit'') became ''pancit luglog'' and ''lomi'' (flavored with sauce); ''mami'' (served with broth); ''pancit molo'' (cooked as pasta) and ''pancit Malabon'' (mixed with

seafood Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of molluscs (e.g. bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters and mussels, and cephalopods such as octopus an ...

). The Chinese brought their use of

rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...

as a staple (and wet-rice agriculture). One result was the local rice porridge called ''arroz caldo''. Other well-known Filipino dishes such as ''lumpia'' (egg-roll), ''maki'' (soup dish), ''kiampong'' (fried rice) and ''ma-chang'' (sticky rice,) among others, trace their origins to the Chinese immigrants. In

Vigan, Ilocos Sur Vigan, officially the City of Vigan ( ilo, Siudad ti Vigan; fil, Lungsod ng Vigan), is a 4th class component city and capital of the province of Ilocos Sur, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 53,935 people. Lo ...

, known as ''kasanglayan'' (meaning "where sangleys live"), prosperous Chinese-Filipino merchants built stone-and-wood houses (really brick and wood) called ''

bahay na bato ''Bahay na bato'' (Tagalog, literally "house of stone", also known in Visayan as ''balay na bato'' or ''balay nga bato; in Spanish as Casa Filipino'') is a type of building originating during the Philippines' Spanish colonial period. It is an ...

''. These followed some of the tradition of Malay village houses-on-stilts, called ''bahay kubo'', but instead of using

bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...

and thatch, they used ''molave''-wood structural beams to frame the two-story house. Walls were formed of brick coated with plaster. Sliding window panels made of translucent ''capiz'' shells, in latticework patterns, enclosed the typically large horizontal windows. On the outside, sliding wooden shutters could cover the windows for another layer of privacy and ventilation control. This area has been designated as an historic district. In contrast to the typical stone-and-brick Spanish colonial houses, this style of residence was better suited to the tropical environment of the islands. It was more flexible, so could better withstand frequent

earthquake An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, fr ...

s. The steep roofs with overhanging eaves provided shelter against rain and storms, and added to the sense of openness and space connecting the interior and exterior. These helped shield residents from seasonal

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscil ...

s. During less severe rain and in the hot summers, the sliding windows could be opened to allow greater circulation of air and more light into the house. When illuminated at night, such houses resemble giant Chinese lanterns. The stone/brick-and-wood house became so widespread throughout the islands that this Chinese-Filipino merchant's house came to be known as the "colonial Filipino" style. The ''mestizos de sangley'' synthesized a hybrid culture incorporating Hispanic and European influences with both indigenous and Asian elements. In fashion, cuisine, design and architecture, a distinctive style emerged, especially among the wealthier segment. As the ''sangley'' prospered from trading, they built the first and in many cases the only stone-and-wood houses in the countryside. Like other rising elites, they created forms of

conspicuous consumption In sociology and in economics, the term conspicuous consumption describes and explains the consumer practice of buying and using goods of a higher quality, price, or in greater quantity than practical. In 1899, the sociologist Thorstein Veblen c ...

to signify their status. The ''mestizos de sangley'' held feasts to commemorate baptisms, weddings, funerals and processions. As the 19th century drew to a close, the colonial Spanish empire in the Philippines was defeated by the rising Western empire of the United States following the

Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...

. Following the war, the United States took possession of the Philippines and influenced its culture in turn. The Filipinos, including the ''mestizos de sangley'', were referred to as "little brown Americans". The Philippines was made a protectorate in relation to the United States, with the residents given special status but not U.S. citizenship at the time.

Etymology

Background

History

Economy

Politics

Culture

See also

Notes

References

Further reading