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''Rumah adat'' are traditional houses built in any of the
vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture is building done outside any academic tradition, and without professional guidance. This category encompasses a wide range and variety of building types, with differing methods of construction, from around the world, bo ...
styles of
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
, collectively belonging to the Austronesian architecture. The traditional houses and settlements of the several hundreds
ethnic groups of Indonesia There are 1,340 recognised ethnic groups in Indonesia. The vast majority of those belong to the Austronesian peoples. Based on ethnic classification, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up about 40% of the total popu ...
are extremely varied and all have their own specific history. It is the Indonesian variants of the whole Austronesian architecture found all over places where Austronesian people inhabited from the Pacific to Madagascar each having their own history, culture and style.
Ethnic groups in Indonesia There are 1,340 recognised ethnic groups in Indonesia. The vast majority of those belong to the Austronesian peoples. Based on ethnic classification, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up about 40% of the total pop ...
are often associated with their own distinctive form of ''rumah
adat Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs. Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succ ...
''.Dawson (1994), p. 10 The houses are at the centre of a web of customs, social relations, traditional laws, taboos, myths and religions that bind the villagers together. The house provides the main focus for the family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its residents.Dawson (1994), p. 8 Villagers build their own homes, or a community pools its resources for a structure built under the direction of a master builder or carpenter. The vast majority of Indonesians no longer live in ''rumah adat'', and the numbers have declined rapidly due to economic, technological, and social changes.


General form

With few exceptions, the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago share a common Austronesian ancestry (originating in Taiwan, c. 6,000 years ago) or
Sundaland Sundaland (also called Sundaica or the Sundaic region) is a biogeographical region of South-eastern Asia corresponding to a larger landmass that was exposed throughout the last 2.6 million years during periods when sea levels were lower. It ...
, a sunken area in South East Asia, and traditional homes of Indonesia share a number of characteristics such as timber construction, varied and elaborate roof structures.The Oxford Companion to Architecture, Volume 1, p. 462. The earliest Austronesian structures were communal
longhouse A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building for communal dwelling. It has been built in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often re ...
s on stilts, with steep sloping roofs and heavy gables, as seen in the
Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Tob ...
rumah adat and the
Toraja The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous people, indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, regency of ...
n Tongkonan. Variations on the communal longhouse principle are found among the
Dayak people The Dayak (; older spelling: Dajak) or Dyak or Dayuh are one of the native groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each w ...
of Borneo, as well as the
Mentawai people Mentawai (also known as Mentawei and Mentawi) people are the native people of the Mentawai Islands (principally Siberut, Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai) about 100 miles from West Sumatra province, Indonesia. They live a semi-nomadic hunt ...
. The norm is for a post, beam and lintel structural system that take load straight to the ground with either
wooden Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin tha ...
or
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
walls that are non-load bearing. Traditionally, rather than nails, mortis and tenon joints and wooden pegs are used.
Natural material A natural material is any product or physical matter stop changing it. Minerals and the metals that can be extracted from them (without further modification) are also considered to belong into this category. Natural materials are used as building ma ...
s - timber, bamboo, thatch and fibre - make up ''rumah adat''.
Hardwood Hardwood is wood from dicot trees. These are usually found in broad-leaved temperate and tropical forests. In temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood (which comes from ...
is generally used for
piles Hemorrhoids (or haemorrhoids), also known as piles, are vascular structures in the anal canal. In their normal state, they are cushions that help with stool control. They become a disease when swollen or inflamed; the unqualified term ''he ...
and a combination of soft and hard wood is used for the house's upper non-load bearing walls, and are often made of lighter wood or
thatch Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge (''Cladium mariscus''), rushes, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of ...
. The thatch material can be
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the f ...
and sugar palm leaves, ''alang alang'' grass and rice straw. Traditional dwellings have developed to respond to natural environmental conditions, particularly Indonesia's hot and wet monsoon climate. As is common throughout
South East Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...
and the South West Pacific, most ''rumah adat'' are built on stilts, with the exception of Java, Bali, and other houses of Eastern Indonesia. Building houses off the ground on stilts serve a number of purposes: it allows breezes to moderate the hot tropical temperatures; it elevates the dwelling above stormwater runoff and mud; it allows houses to be built on rivers and wetland margins; it keeps people, goods and food from dampness and moisture; lifts living quarters above
malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. ...
-carrying
mosquitos Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning "gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "litt ...
; and reduces the risk of
dry rot Dry rot is wood decay caused by one of several species of fungi that digest parts of the wood which give the wood strength and stiffness. It was previously used to describe any decay of cured wood in ships and buildings by a fungus which resul ...
and
termites Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes ( eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blat ...
. The sharply inclined roof allows the heavy tropical rain to quickly sheet off, and large overhanging
eaves The eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and, normally, project beyond the side of a building. The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be highly decorated as part of an architectural styl ...
keep water out of the house and provide shade in the heat. In hot and humid low-lying coastal regions, homes can have many windows providing good cross-ventilation, whereas in cooler mountainous interior areas, homes often have a vast roof and few windows.


Examples

Examples of ''rumah adat'' include: * Batak architecture (
North Sumatra North Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Utara) is a province of Indonesia located on the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan. North Sumatra is Indonesia's fourth most populous province after West Java, East Java and ...
) includes the boat-shaped ''jabu'' homes of the Toba Batak people, with dominating carved gables and dramatic oversized roof, and are based on an ancient
model A model is an informative representation of an object, person or system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late 16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian ultimately from Latin ''modulus'', a measure. Models c ...
. *The
Minangkabau Minangkabau may refer to: * Minangkabau culture, culture of the Minangkabau people * Minangkabau Culture Documentation and Information Center * Minangkabau Express, an airport rail link service serving Minangkabau International Airport (''see belo ...
of
West Sumatra West Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Barat) is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. The province has an area of , with a population of 5,534,472 at the 2020 cen ...
build the '' rumah gadang'', distinctive for their multiple
gable A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system used, which reflects climate, material availability, and aest ...
s with dramatically upsweeping ridge ends. *The homes of
Nias Nias ( id, Pulau Nias, Nias language: ''Tanö Niha'') (sometimes called Little Sumatra in English) is an island located off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. Nias is also the name of the archipelago () of which the island is the centre ...
peoples include the ''
omo sebua The Omo sebua is a traditional house style of the Nias people from Nias island, Indonesia. They are built only for the houses of village's chiefs. Situated in the centre of a village, ''omo sebua'' are built on massive ironwood piles and have tower ...
'' chiefs' houses built on massive ironwood pillars with towering roofs. Not only are they almost impregnable to attack in former tribal warfare, but flexible nail-less construction provide proven earthquake durability. *''
Rumah Melayu Malay houses ( Malay: ''Rumah Melayu;'' Jawi: رومه ملايو) refer to the vernacular dwellings of the Malays, an ethno-linguistic group inhabiting Sumatra, coastal Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. Traditional architectural forms, such as ...
'' Malay traditional houses built on stilts of Sumatra, Borneo and Malay Peninsula. *The
Riau Riau is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the central eastern coast of Sumatra along the Strait of Malacca. The province shares land borders with North Sumatra to the northwest, West Sumatra to the west, and Jambi to the south. Accordi ...
region is characterised by villages built on stilts over waterways. * Sundanese '' imah'' usually take basic form of
gabled roof A gable roof is a roof consisting of two sections whose upper horizontal edges meet to form its ridge. The most common roof shape in cold or temperate climates, it is constructed of rafters, roof trusses or purlins. The pitch of a gable roof ca ...
called ''kampung'' style roof, made of thatched materials (''ijuk'' black aren fibers or ''hateup'' leaves) with weaved bamboo wall and structure built on short stilts. The more elaborate overhanging gabled roof is called ''Julang Ngapak''. *Unlike most South East Asian vernacular homes, Javanese '' omah'' are not built on piles, and have become the Indonesian vernacular style most influenced by European architectural elements. *The '' Bubungan Tinggi'', with their steeply pitched roofs, are the large homes of Banjarese royalty and aristocrats in
South Kalimantan South Kalimantan ( id, Kalimantan Selatan) is a province of Indonesia. It is the smallest province in Kalimantan, the Indonesian territory of Borneo. The provincial capital was Banjarmasin until 15 February 2022 when it was legally moved to B ...
. *Traditional Balinese homes are a collection of individual, largely open structures (including separate structures for the kitchen, sleeping areas, bathing areas and shrine) within a high-walled garden compound. *The
Sasak The Sasak people live mainly on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, numbering around 3.6 million (85% of Lombok's population). They are related to the Balinese in language and ancestry, although the Sasak are predominantly Muslim while the Bali ...
people of
Lombok Lombok is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east. It is ...
build ''lumbung'', pile-built bonnet-roofed rice barns, that are often more distinctive and elaborate than their houses (see Sasak architecture). * Dayak people traditionally live in communal
longhouse A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building for communal dwelling. It has been built in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often re ...
s that are built on piles. The houses can exceed 300 m in length, in some cases forming a whole village. *The
Toraja The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous people, indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, regency of ...
of the
Sulawesi Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sulu ...
highlands are renowned for their '' tongkonan'', houses built on piles and dwarfed by massive exaggerated-pitch saddle roofs. *''Rumah adat'' on
Sumba Sumba ( id, Pulau Sumba) is an island in eastern Indonesia. It is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands and is in the province of East Nusa Tenggara. Sumba has an area of , and the population was 779,049 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as a ...
have distinctive thatched "high hat" roofs and are wrapped with sheltered verandahs. *The Papuan Dani traditionally live in small family compounds composed of several circular huts known as ''honay'' with
thatch Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge (''Cladium mariscus''), rushes, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of ...
ed dome roofs. File:Rumoh Acèh di Piyeung Datu.jpg, Rumoh Aceh, Aceh File:Batak Toba House.jpg, A traditional Batak Toba house, North Sumatra File:Bisa Junisa Munthe-Rumah adat Karo.jpg, Karo house, North Sumatra File:Rumah Gadang in Padang Panjang.jpg, Rumah Gadang, West Sumatra File:Rumah Melayu Bangkinang.JPG, Bangkinang Malay house, Riau File:Kampung Naga Java110.jpg, Sundanese Kampung house, West Java File:Bale Kambang in Taman Gili, Bali 1531.jpg, Balinese pavilion, Bali File:Rumah Bubungan Tinggi Desa Habirau Kecamatan Daha Selatan Kabupaten Hulu Sungai Selatan.jpg, Rumah Bubungan Tinggi, South Kalimantan File:Museum Balla Lompoa.jpg, Bugis house, South Sulawesi File:Toraja house.jpg, Houses in a Torajan village, South Sulawesi File:Traditional house Ratenggaro Sumba.jpg, Sumba house, East Nusa Tenggara File:Rumah Adat Mbaru Niang.jpg, Mbaru Niang house, East Nusa Tenggara


Decline

The numbers of ''rumah adat'' are decreasing across Indonesia. This trend dates from the colonial period, with the Dutch generally viewing traditional architecture as unhygienic, with big roofs that sheltered rats.Nas, p. 348 Multi-family homes were viewed with suspicion by religious authorities, as were those aspects of the ''rumah adat'' linked to traditional belief. In parts of the Indies, colonial authorities embarked on vigorous demolition programmes, replacing traditional homes with houses built using Western construction techniques, such as bricks and
corrugated iron Corrugated galvanised iron or steel, colloquially corrugated iron (near universal), wriggly tin (taken from UK military slang), pailing (in Caribbean English), corrugated sheet metal (in North America) and occasionally abbreviated CGI is a ...
roofs, fitting sanitary facilities and better ventilation. Traditional craftsmen were retrained in Western building techniques.Nas, p. 347 Since independence, the Indonesian government has continued to promote the 'rumah sehat sederhana' ('simple healthy home') over the ''rumah adat''.Transformation of Building Form: Development of Traditional Dwelling of the Ngada, Central Flores Island - Toga H Pandjaitan
Exposure to the market economy made the construction of labour-intensive ''rumah adat'', such as the Batak house, extremely expensive (previously villages would work together to construct new homes) to build and maintain. In addition,
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...
and
population growth Population growth is the increase in the number of people in a population or dispersed group. Actual global human population growth amounts to around 83 million annually, or 1.1% per year. The global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to ...
meant that the hardwoods were no longer a free resource to be gathered as needed from nearby forests, but instead a too-expensive commodity. Combined with a general appetite for modernity, the great majority of Indonesians now dwell in generic modern buildings rather than traditional ''rumah adat''. In areas with many tourists, such as the Tanah
Toraja The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous people, indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, regency of ...
, ''rumah adat'' are preserved as a spectacle for tourists, their former residents living elsewhere, with design elements exaggerated to the point that these ''rumah adat'' are considerably less comfortable than the original designs. While in most areas ''rumah adat'' have been abandoned, in a few remote areas they are still current, and in other areas buildings in the style of the ''rumah adat'' are maintained for ceremonial purposes, as museums or for official buildings.


Contemporary adaptation

During the colonial
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, whic ...
period around the first half of the 20th century, the typical style and elements of vernacular Indonesian ''rumah adat'' were often used as the inspiration, recreated and replicated intentionally to represent the cultural diversity of the colony, also intended to create a festive atmosphere with fantastic architecture. The annual Pasar Gambir for example — a fair held between 1906 and 1942 in Batavia, was known to have gates, stages, towers and pavilions constructed in ''rumah adat'' style drawn from all over the archipelago. Each year, these uniquely designed ''rumah adat'' pavilions were created and constructed anew using locally available materials, thus also become the attraction of the fair. This period also saw the pride and desire to showcase the cultural diversity of the colony through showcasing the vernacular architecture of the archipelago. In 1931, during Paris Colonial Exposition, the Netherlands presented a beautiful cultural synthesis from their colony — the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch colonial pavilion was located on exhibition lot as wide as 3 hectares and was built based on the combination of many cultural elements of the '' Nusantara'' (Indonesian archipelago), a combination of Indonesian vernacular architecture. It has walls consisted of 750,000 pieces of ironwood from Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). As the centerpiece, the front part is decorated with twin 50 metres-tall Balinese
Meru tower A Meru tower or pelinggih meru is the principal shrine of a Balinese temple. It is a wooden, pagoda-like structure with a masonry base, a wooden chamber and multi-tiered thatched roofs. The height of Meru towers represent the Hindu Mount Meru. Mer ...
s. The pavilion's roof was done in ''tumpang'' or ''tajug'' style, a signature of Javanese mosque, completed with carved wooden door of '' kori agung'' typical towering portal of ''pura''
Balinese temple A pura is a Balinese Hindu temple, and the place of worship for adherents of Balinese Hinduism in Indonesia. Puras are built in accordance to rules, style, guidance and rituals found in Balinese architecture. Most puras are found on the island o ...
, combined with arched roof of Minangkabau's ''atap bagonjong'' typical of '' rumah gadang''. This fusion of Indonesian vernacular architecture presented a splendid and majestic palace-like pavilion. However, on 28 June 1931, an enormous fire burnt down the Dutch pavilion, along with all cultural objects displayed inside. Buildings are sometimes built with modern construction techniques that include stylistic elements from ''rumah adat'', such as
The House of the Five Senses The House of the Five Senses is the main entrance of amusement park Efteling in the Netherlands. It was designed by Ton van de Ven and went operational in 1996, a year later than planned due to a general strike in the construction sector. Detail ...
in the
Efteling Efteling () is a fantasy-themed amusement park in Kaatsheuvel, the Netherlands. The attractions reflect elements from ancient myths and legends, fairy tales, fables, and folklore. The park was opened on May 31, 1952. It evolved from a nature p ...
, a building modeled on the Minangkabau rumah gadang. In the colonial period some Europeans constructed homes according to hybrid Western-adat designs, such as Bendegom, who built a 'transitional' Western-
Batak Karo The Karo, or Karonese, are a people of the ''Tanah Karo'' (Karo lands) and part one of Batak people sub-ethnic group from North Sumatera, Indonesia. The Karo lands consist of Karo Regency, plus neighboring areas in East Aceh Regency, Langkat Rege ...
house.Nas, p.349 In numbers of places, elements or ornaments of ''rumah adat'' has become the regional identity of provinces or regencies (''
kabupaten A regency ( id, kabupaten), sometimes incorrectly referred to as a district, is an administrative division of Indonesia, directly under a province and on the same level with city (''kota''). Regencies is divided into districts (''Kecamatan'', '' ...
''). Thus the construction of government and public buildings are encouraged to include or feature this native architectural elements. Despite technically the new buildings are constructed in contemporary technique with concrete frames and brick walls, instead of traditional timber carpentry. Most often the result is the implant of traditional roof sit on top of modern buildings. This tendency can be seen in West Sumatra and Tana Toraja, where the typical Minang ''bagonjong'' (horned) roof and Toraja ''tongkonan'' roof are implanted in almost any public buildings; from airports to hotels, restaurants and government offices. It has been noted that the traditional wooden houses are generally more earthquake-resistant than modern brick designs, although they are more vulnerable to fire. The construction of modern concrete framed and brick walled ''rumah adat'' has undermine the very characteristic of traditional wooden house, which is its flexibility to absorb shock-waves generated by an earthquake. These concrete ''rumah adat''-style building often can not withstand earthquake and collapsed, like those buildings collapsed in 2009 Padang earthquake. In some areas, a 'semi-modern' ''rumah adat'' concept has been adopted, such as among some
Ngada Ngada Regency is one of the regencies on the island of Flores, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. It is bordered by East Manggarai Regency to the west and Nagekeo Regency to the east, with the Flores Sea to the north and the Sawu Sea to ...
people, with traditional elements placed inside a concrete shell.


See also

*
Architecture of Indonesia The architecture of Indonesia reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole. Invaders, colonizers, missionaries, merchants and traders brought cultural changes that had a profo ...
* Javanese traditional house *
Balinese traditional house Balinese traditional house refers to the traditional vernacular house of Balinese people in Bali, Indonesia. The Balinese traditional house is the product of a blend of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, fused with Austronesian animism, resulting in a ho ...
* Rumah gadang * Malay houses *
Nipa hut The ''bahay kubo'', also known as ''payag'' (Nipon) in the Visayan languages and, is a type of stilt house indigenous to the Philippines. It often serves as an icon of Philippine culture. The house is exclusive to the lowland population of ...
*
Chinese architecture Chinese architecture ( Chinese:中國建築) is the embodiment of an architectural style that has developed over millennia in China and it has influenced architecture throughout Eastern Asia. Since its emergence during the early ancient era, t ...
*
Ancestral houses of the Philippines Ancestral houses of the Philippines or Heritage Houses are homes owned and preserved by the same family for several generations as part of the Filipino family culture. It corresponds to long tradition by Filipino people of venerating Ancestors ...
*
Shophouse A shophouse is a building type serving both as a residence and a commercial business. It is defined in dictionary as a building type found in Southeast Asia that is "a shop opening on to the pavement and also used as the owner's residence", a ...
*
Sino-Portuguese architecture Sino-Portuguese architecture, also known as Chinese Baroque, Straits/Singapore Eclectic architecture or Peranakan architecture is an Asian hybrid style incorporating elements of both Chinese and Portuguese architectural styles. It is common in ...
*
Bahay na Bato ''Bahay na bato'' (Tagalog, literally "house of stone", also known in Visayan as ''balay na bato'' or ''balay nga bato; in Spanish as Casa Filipino'') is a type of building originating during the Philippines' Spanish colonial period. It is an ...


Notes


Bibliography

* Reimar Schefold, P. Nas, Gaudenz Domenig
''Indonesian Houses: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture''
2004, National University of Singapore Press, Singapore, * Dawson, B., Gillow, J., ''The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia'', 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, * Schoppert, P., Damais, S., ''Java Style'', 1997, Didier Millet, Paris, 207 pages, * Wijaya, M., ''Architecture of Bali: A source book of traditional and modern forms'', 2002 Archipelago Press, Singapore, 224 pages, * Peter JM. Nas
''The House in Indonesia''
{{improve categories, date=April 2020 Architecture in Indonesia