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Reformed worship is religious devotion to God as conducted by Reformed or Calvinistic Christians, including
Presbyterians Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their n ...
. Despite considerable local and national variation, public worship in most Reformed and Presbyterian churches is governed by the Regulative principle of worship.


General principles and historical overview

Huldrych Zwingli Huldrych or Ulrich Zwingli (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland, born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system. He attended the Univ ...
, who began his reforming work in Zurich in 1518, introduced many radical changes to worship. His Sunday service, instituted in 1519, was apparently derived from a
liturgy Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by a religious group. ''Liturgy'' can also be used to refer specifically to public worship by Christians. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and partic ...
called Prone, a
late Medieval The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renai ...
service which was sometimes held before, during, or after
mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different ele ...
. It contained the
Lord's Prayer The Lord's Prayer, also called the Our Father or Pater Noster, is a central Christian prayer which Jesus taught as the way to pray. Two versions of this prayer are recorded in the gospels: a longer form within the Sermon on the Mount in the Gosp ...
, a
Hail Mary The Hail Mary ( la, Ave Maria) is a traditional Christian prayer addressing Mary, the mother of Jesus. The prayer is based on two biblical passages featured in the Gospel of Luke: the Angel Gabriel's visit to Mary (the Annunciation) and Mary' ...
, a
sermon A sermon is a religious discourse or oration by a preacher, usually a member of clergy. Sermons address a scriptural, theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior within both past and present contexts. ...
, a remembrance of those who had died the previous week, another Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary, the
Apostles' Creed The Apostles' Creed ( Latin: ''Symbolum Apostolorum'' or ''Symbolum Apostolicum''), sometimes titled the Apostolic Creed or the Symbol of the Apostles, is a Christian creed or "symbol of faith". The creed most likely originated in 5th-century ...
, the
Decalogue The Ten Commandments (Biblical Hebrew עשרת הדברים \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדְּבָרִים, ''aséret ha-dvarím'', lit. The Decalogue, The Ten Words, cf. Mishnaic Hebrew עשרת הדיברות \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְ ...
, confession, and
absolution Absolution is a traditional theological term for the forgiveness imparted by ordained Christian priests and experienced by Christian penitents. It is a universal feature of the historic churches of Christendom, although the theology and the pr ...
.
Martin Bucer Martin Bucer ( early German: ''Martin Butzer''; 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551) was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a me ...
, the reformer of
Strasbourg Strasbourg (, , ; german: Straßburg ; gsw, label= Bas Rhin Alsatian, Strossburi , gsw, label= Haut Rhin Alsatian, Strossburig ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est region of eastern France and the official seat of the ...
, believed that proper worship must be conducted in obedience to the Bible, and for this reason he sought to eliminate many of the dramatic ceremonies which were part of the liturgy of the church. He limited worship to
preaching A sermon is a religious discourse or oration by a preacher, usually a member of clergy. Sermons address a scriptural, theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior within both past and present contexts. ...
,
almsgiving Alms (, ) are money, food, or other material goods donated to people living in poverty. Providing alms is often considered an act of virtue or charity. The act of providing alms is called almsgiving, and it is a widespread practice in a numbe ...
, the
Eucharist The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was institu ...
, and prayer.
John Oecolampadius Johannes Oecolampadius (also ''Œcolampadius'', in German also Oekolampadius, Oekolampad; 1482 – 24 November 1531) was a German Protestant reformer in the Calvinist tradition from the Electoral Palatinate. He was the leader of the Protestant ...
, in
Basel , french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese , neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (B ...
, believed that while the Bible did not give detailed liturgical instruction, all worship must be guided by biblical principles. For him this meant that worship should be simple and unpretentious.
John Calvin John Calvin (; frm, Jehan Cauvin; french: link=no, Jean Calvin ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system ...
's ideas about worship were influenced
Martin Bucer Martin Bucer ( early German: ''Martin Butzer''; 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551) was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a me ...
and William Farel during his time in
Strasbourg Strasbourg (, , ; german: Straßburg ; gsw, label= Bas Rhin Alsatian, Strossburi , gsw, label= Haut Rhin Alsatian, Strossburig ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est region of eastern France and the official seat of the ...
beginning in 1538. When he came to
Geneva Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situa ...
in 1536, Farel had already begun a Zwinglian reformation. His liturgy emphasized the unworthiness of the worshiper with the Ten Commandments being sung every Sunday, a practice probably taken from
Martin Bucer Martin Bucer ( early German: ''Martin Butzer''; 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551) was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a me ...
. The service was also very didactic, with even the prayers written with the intention to instruct. Calvin did not insist on having explicit biblical precedents for every element of worship, but looked to the
early church Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish ...
as his model and retained whatever he considered edifying. The liturgy was entirely in the vernacular, and the people were to participate in the prayers. Calvin's Geneva became the model for all
continental Reformed Continental Reformed Protestantism is a part of the Calvinist tradition within Protestantism that traces its origin in the European continent. Prominent subgroups are the Dutch Reformed, the Swiss Reformed, the French Reformed (Huguenots), the ...
worship, and by the end of the sixteenth century a fixed liturgy was being used by all Reformed churches.
Dutch Reformed church The Dutch Reformed Church (, abbreviated NHK) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the original denomination of the Dutch Royal Family and ...
es developed an order of worship in refugee churches in England and Germany which was ratified at
synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word '' synod'' comes from the meaning "assembly" or "meeting" and is analogous with the Latin word mean ...
s in
Dordrecht Dordrecht (), historically known in English as Dordt (still colloquially used in Dutch, ) or Dort, is a city and municipality in the Western Netherlands, located in the province of South Holland. It is the province's fifth-largest city after ...
in 1574 and 1578. The form emphasizes self-examination between the
words of institution The Words of Institution (also called the Words of Consecration) are words echoing those of Jesus himself at his Last Supper that, when consecrating bread and wine, Christian Eucharistic liturgies include in a narrative of that event. Eucharist ...
and communion consisting of accepting the misery of one's sin, assurance of mercy, and turning away those who are unrepentant. The 1552 ''
Book of Common Prayer The ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) is the name given to a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion and by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The original book, published in 1549 in the reign ...
'' was influenced by Reformed thinking through Scottish reformer
John Knox John Knox ( gd, Iain Cnocc) (born – 24 November 1572) was a Scottish minister, Reformed theologian, and writer who was a leader of the country's Reformation. He was the founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Born in Giffordgat ...
's insistence on including what became known as the
black rubric The term Black Rubric is the popular name for the declaration found at the end of the "Order for the Administration of the Lord's Supper" in the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP), the Church of England's liturgical book. The Black Rubric explains wh ...
, a declaration that kneeling at the Eucharist did not imply
adoration Adoration is respect, reverence, strong admiration, or love in a certain person, place, or thing. The term comes from the Latin ''adōrātiō'', meaning "to give homage or worship to someone or something". Ancient Rome In classical Rome, adorat ...
. Knox also wrote a liturgy for the newly founded
Church of Scotland The Church of Scotland ( sco, The Kirk o Scotland; gd, Eaglais na h-Alba) is the national church in Scotland. The Church of Scotland was principally shaped by John Knox, in the Reformation of 1560, when it split from the Catholic Church ...
based on John Calvin's liturgy. Knox's liturgy set a structure for worship in Scotland, though ministers could improvise. Following to the
Union of the Crowns The Union of the Crowns ( gd, Aonadh nan Crùintean; sco, Union o the Crouns) was the accession of James VI of Scotland to the throne of the Kingdom of England as James I and the practical unification of some functions (such as overseas dip ...
in 1603, the English made several attempts to impose the ''Book of Common Prayer'' on the Scots, which they fiercely resisted. Following their return from exile in Geneva during the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip, English Protestants known as
Puritans The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. ...
(who remained within the Church of England) and
separatists Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greate ...
(who separated from it) began to attempt to introduce some of the more radical reforms they had experienced in Geneva into the worship of the Church of England, and in some ways to go beyond them. They sought to rid worship of any element not specifically prescribed in the Bible, though they disagreed on the practical implications of this. They also favored liturgical decisions to be made at the lowest level possible, rather than by a regional or national authority.


Baptism

In the years leading up to the Reformation,
baptism Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost ...
was often conducted in private as a celebration of the birth of children. The rite was considered necessary for salvation, and so midwives often baptized children to avoid the risk that the child would die unbaptized. Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer made it a part of the worship service so that parishioners could be reminded of their own baptism, which was to be the sign of their incorporation into the church. The parents of children were to bring their children to the font following the sermon, and were admonished to catechize their children, a process which was intended to begin around age ten. Catechesis was considered to be entailed in baptism itself, and weekly catechetical services were instituted for this purpose. Zwingli understood baptism to be a sign of membership in a community rather than a ritual which conferred salvation on individuals. He, or possibly Oecolampadius, can be credited with first articulating this line of thought, later called
covenant theology Covenant theology (also known as covenantalism, federal theology, or federalism) is a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall structure of the Bible. It uses the theological concept of a covenant as an org ...
, which became the Reformed
sacramental theology A sacrament is a Christian rite that is recognized as being particularly important and significant. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the re ...
. During the Reformation,
Anabaptist Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek : 're-' and 'baptism', german: Täufer, earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. ...
s opposed the practice of infant baptism, arguing that only those who had made a profession of faith should be administered the rite. This was based on a theology of decisional regeneration, the teaching that only those who had made a decision for Christ could be saved. Against this, the Reformed believed that justification is only by grace, rather than based on any human decision.
Baptism Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost ...
also became a public event in Geneva, with the font moved to the front of the church or even being attached to the pulpit.
Confirmation In Christian denominations that practice infant baptism, confirmation is seen as the sealing of the covenant created in baptism. Those being confirmed are known as confirmands. For adults, it is an affirmation of belief. It involves laying on ...
was abolished, but as in Strasbourg children were expected to make a public profession of faith when able, and this became the standard rite of passage for children to be admitted to communion in Reformed churches. Puritans also saw baptism as a prophetic sign at the beginning of Christian life. Confession of sin and professions of faith (such as reciting the Apostles' Creed) were considered the fulfillment of the sign, the living out of one's baptism, or improving on one's baptism. The rise of revivalism in the eighteenth century brought about a greater emphasis on
conversion Conversion or convert may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * "Conversion" (''Doctor Who'' audio), an episode of the audio drama ''Cyberman'' * "Conversion" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of the television series * "The Conversion" ...
, often as a dramatic emotional experience, as the means of beginning the Christian life rather than baptism. Congregationalist minister
Horace Bushnell Horace Bushnell (April 14, 1802February 17, 1876) was an American Congregational minister and theologian. Life Bushnell was born in the village of Bantam, township of Litchfield, Connecticut. He attended Yale College where he roomed with fut ...
led a return to earlier understandings of baptism and catechesis. In the twentieth century some scholars argued that sacraments were not of biblical origin, leading to a revival of ceremony surrounding the sacraments which the reformers had removed.


Preaching

Rather than preaching on the appointed
gospel Gospel originally meant the Christian message (" the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words a ...
, as was the common practice at the time Zwingli preached through consecutive books of the Bible, a practice known as ''
lectio continua In Christianity, Lectio continua (Latin for ''continuous reading'') refers to the practice of reading Scripture in sequence over a period of time. Each reading (which may take place every day or every Sunday) etc. begins where the previous session ...
'' which he learned from reading the sermons of
John Chrysostom John Chrysostom (; gr, Ἰωάννης ὁ Χρυσόστομος; 14 September 407) was an important Early Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of ...
.
John Oecolampadius Johannes Oecolampadius (also ''Œcolampadius'', in German also Oekolampadius, Oekolampad; 1482 – 24 November 1531) was a German Protestant reformer in the Calvinist tradition from the Electoral Palatinate. He was the leader of the Protestant ...
preached from the Hebrew text rather than the Latin, though most theologians during the time often could not even read Greek. In Strasbourg, Martin Bucer and its other preachers also preached ''lectio continua''. There,
catechetical Catechesis (; from Greek: , "instruction by word of mouth", generally "instruction") is basic Christian religious education of children and adults, often from a catechism book. It started as education of converts to Christianity, but as the re ...
preaching took place every Sunday afternoon, so that the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the sacraments were explained every year. This practice was also instituted in Wittenburg, Zurich, Basel, and Constance. Calvin preferred to conduct the entire service from the pulpit, and pulpits became prominent features in Reformed churches. Reformed worship in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries emphasized hearing the preached word.
Catechesis Catechesis (; from Greek: , "instruction by word of mouth", generally "instruction") is basic Christian religious education of children and adults, often from a catechism book. It started as education of converts to Christianity, but as the ...
for young and old ensured that what was heard was understood. Congregational prayers were long and theologically weighty.


Music

Music in worship was abolished altogether by Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich in 1523 based on a belief that the Bible did not allow for it and that physical means could not lead to spiritual edification. A number of German cities published Protestant songbooks before
Martin Luther Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...
's ''Geystliche gesangk Buchleyn'', including Nuremberg and Erfurt. The reformed Church in Strasbourg, under the leadership of Martin Bucer, was one of the first to institute
congregational singing Congregational singing is the practice of the congregation participating in the music of a church, either in the form of hymns or a metrical Psalms or a free form Psalm or in the form of the office of the liturgy (for example Gregorian chants). I ...
to replace choral singing, and produced many
psalm The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived f ...
s and
hymn A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word ''hymn ...
s for this purpose, including some (such as 'Gott sei gelobt') by Luther. Although the first Strasbourg liturgies didn't include music, publishers soon began including musical notation. Early on, the biblical Psalms were used almost exclusively by the Strasbougers. Successive editions of the '' Strasbourg Psalter'' contained increasing numbers of psalms. In Constance, where Johannes Zwick and the Blarer brothers led, hymns as well as psalms were used, with the '' Constance Hymn Book'' of 1540 being divided evenly between hymns and psalms. In 1537, the Strasbourgers also began to include original hymns in their ''Psalter''. John Calvin began work on the '' Genevan Psalter'' in the French language in 1538. This psalter contained translations by poets such as
Clément Marot Clément Marot (23 November 1496 – 12 September 1544) was a French Renaissance poet. Biography Youth Marot was born at Cahors, the capital of the province of Quercy, some time during the winter of 1496–1497. His father, Jean Marot (c.& ...
and melodies written by composers such as
Claude Goudimel Claude Goudimel (c. 1514 to 1520 – between 28 August and 31 August 1572) was a FrenchPaul-André Gaillard, "Goudimel, Claude", ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1 ...
and Louis Bourgeois. It consisted almost exclusively of psalms, and
exclusive psalmody Exclusive psalmody is the practice of singing only the biblical Psalms in congregational singing as worship. Today it is practised by several Protestant, especially Reformed denominations. Hymns besides the Psalms have been composed by Christians ...
became the dominant practice among the Reformed for the next 200 years. Psalms were to be sung in
unison In music, unison is two or more musical parts that sound either the same pitch or pitches separated by intervals of one or more octaves, usually at the same time. ''Rhythmic unison'' is another term for homorhythm. Definition Unison or per ...
by the congregation, though
harmony In music, harmony is the process by which individual sounds are joined together or composed into whole units or compositions. Often, the term harmony refers to simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches ( tones, notes), or chords. Howeve ...
was permitted in private. Notably, the
Scottish Psalter Decisions concerning the conduct of public worship in the Church of Scotland are entirely at the discretion of the parish minister. As a result, a wide variety of musical resources are used. However, at various times in its history, the General A ...
was produced in 1564, based in part on Calvin's Genevan Psalter. Singing a Psalm in unison was a standard practice before and after the sermon in all Reformed churches in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with Zurich ending their prohibition on church music in 1598. A leader sang each line with the congregation repeating. Organs were forbidden, though trumpets were gradually introduced. Works like the 1562 English '' Sternhold and Hopkins Psalter'' were very popular among the Reformed. Literal translations of the Psalms began to be preferred by the Reformed over the looser translations of the ''Genevan'' and ''Sternhold and Hopkins'' psalters in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Some of the most influential psalters of the seventeenth century were the ''Scottish Psalter'' of 1635 and the '' Bay Psalm Book'' of 1640, which was the first book printed in America. Isaac Watts, an early eighteenth-century English Congregationalist minister, translated psalms much more freely than his predecessors. Some complained that his psalms were not translations at all, but paraphrases. Watts also wrote many hymns, many of which imitated the psalms. The rise of
pietism Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy an ...
in the eighteenth century led to an even greater dominance of hymns. Hymnody became acceptable for Presbyterians around the middle of the nineteenth century, though the Reformed Presbyterians continue to insist on exclusive a capella psalmody. The use of
organ Organ may refer to: Biology * Organ (biology), a part of an organism Musical instruments * Organ (music), a family of keyboard musical instruments characterized by sustained tone ** Electronic organ, an electronic keyboard instrument ** Hammond ...
s and
choir A choir ( ; also known as a chorale or chorus) is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical music repertoire, which sp ...
s also became acceptable in Reformed churches during the nineteenth century, even in Zurich. Sparked in 2001, with the publishing of ''
In Christ Alone "In Christ Alone" is a popular modern Christian song written by Keith Getty and Stuart Townend, both songwriters of Christian hymns and contemporary worship music in the United Kingdom. The song, with a strong Irish melody, is the first hy ...
'', the modern hymn movement has grown, primarily among Reformed Christians, as a response to the commercialism, false teaching, and arguably weaker theology found in much of the
Contemporary Christian Music Contemporary Christian music, also known as CCM, Christian pop, and occasionally inspirational music is a genre of modern popular music, and an aspect of Christian media, which is lyrically focused on matters related to the Christianity, Christi ...
industry. The modern hymn movement seeks to elevate lyrical content over musical composition; rich theological truth over mindless, empty, or repetitive choruses. Including ''In Christ Alone'' by Keith Getty & Stuart Townend, other well known examples of modern hymns include ''Yet Not I But Through Christ in Me'' by CityAlight, ''His Mercy is More'' by Matt Papa & Matt Boswell, and
How Deep the Father's Love for Us Stuart Townend (born 1963) is an English Christian worship leader and writer of hymns and contemporary worship music. His songs include "In Christ Alone", (2001, co-written with Keith Getty, Townend's first collaboration with any other songwr ...
by Stuart Townend. Other artists that have and continue to contribute to this movement include Sovereign Grace Music, The Enfield Hymn Sessions, and
Aaron Keyes Aaron Robert Keyes (born September 8, 1978) is an American Christian musician. He released ''Not Guilty Anymore'' through Kingsway Records in 2007. His subsequent album, ''Dwell'', was released by Kingsway Records in 2011. This album was his bre ...
. With these and other artists' compositions, modern hymns continue to be shared, adopted throughout Reformed churches as well as other Christian denominations and groups while continuing to be translated into multiple languages.


Images, saints, and holy days

Zwingli and Jud also preached against
prayer to saints Intercession of the Saints is a Christian doctrine held by the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic churches. The practice of praying through saints can be found in Christian writings from the 3rd century onward. The 4th-century Apos ...
, though the
Hail Mary The Hail Mary ( la, Ave Maria) is a traditional Christian prayer addressing Mary, the mother of Jesus. The prayer is based on two biblical passages featured in the Gospel of Luke: the Angel Gabriel's visit to Mary (the Annunciation) and Mary' ...
was retained in the liturgy until 1563. Starting in 1525, the
Eucharist The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was institu ...
, which had been celebrated by priests each Sunday but only with the
laity In religious organizations, the laity () consists of all members who are not part of the clergy, usually including any non- ordained members of religious orders, e.g. a nun or a lay brother. In both religious and wider secular usage, a lay ...
communing at
Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year ...
,
Easter Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the '' Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samue ...
,
Pentecost Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christian holiday which takes place on the 50th day (the seventh Sunday) after Easter Sunday. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles and other followers ...
, and the festival of Sts.
Felix and Regula Felix and Regula are Coptic Orthodox and Roman Catholic saints, together with their servant Exuperantius, and are the patron saints of Zürich, their feast day being 11 September in the Gregorian calendar, celebrated on the same day using th ...
, the patron saints of Zurich, now only took place at those festivals, with the laity always participating. The festivals of
Circumcision Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Top ...
,
Annunciation The Annunciation (from Latin '), also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord, is the Christian celebration of the biblical tale of the announcement by the ang ...
, and Ascension were also retained. In Geneva,
Saints' days The calendar of saints is the traditional Christian method of organizing a liturgical year by associating each day with one or more saints and referring to the day as the feast day or feast of said saint. The word "feast" in this context doe ...
were abolished, with only Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost retained as holy days to be celebrated on Sundays, with a break in the ''
lectio continua In Christianity, Lectio continua (Latin for ''continuous reading'') refers to the practice of reading Scripture in sequence over a period of time. Each reading (which may take place every day or every Sunday) etc. begins where the previous session ...
'' preaching for a sermon suited for the occasion. In
continental Reformed Continental Reformed Protestantism is a part of the Calvinist tradition within Protestantism that traces its origin in the European continent. Prominent subgroups are the Dutch Reformed, the Swiss Reformed, the French Reformed (Huguenots), the ...
churches, the five evangelical feasts of Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost were regularly celebrated.
Puritan The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. ...
s largely discarded the church calendar.


Daily prayer

Zwingli and his partner
Leo Jud Leo Jud (; also Leo Juda, Leo Judä, Leo Judas, Leonis Judae, Ionnes Iuda, Leo Keller; 1482 – 19 June 1542), known to his contemporaries as Meister Leu, was a Swiss reformer who worked with Huldrych Zwingli in Zürich. Biography Jud was bor ...
also introduced daily morning prophesyings, during which the Old Testament was expounded and the people invited to respond. In Geneva, every Wednesday became a day of prayer which focused on day-to-day concerns. Followers of separatist
John Robinson John Robinson may refer to: Academics *John Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882), Irish astronomer and physicist * John J. Robinson (1918–1996), historian and author of ''Born in Blood'' * John Talbot Robinson (1923–2001), paleontologist *Joh ...
of the
Scrooby Congregation The Scrooby Congregation were English Protestant separatists who lived near Scrooby, on the outskirts of Bawtry, a small market town at the border of South Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire. In 1607/8 the Congregation emigrated to the Net ...
, the group from which the Pilgrims who emigrated to Massachusetts Bay in 1620 was drawn, only allowed extemporaneous prayer.


Lord's Supper (Communion)

Calvin took a mediating position between Luther and Zwingli regarding the sacrament of the Lord's Supper (also known as Communion). He held that Christ's body and blood are spiritually (rather than physically, as Luther insisted) conveyed to those who partake in faith. The people sat or knelt at a table to take communion. Calvin wished to have the Lord's Supper celebrated each Sunday, but was not allowed by the city council. Instead, it was celebrated every quarter, with an intense period of self-examination by the people beforehand. The determination of worthiness to receive the Lord's Supper was to be based upon trust in God alone for forgiveness of sin, repentance, and reconciliation with others, and the
consistory Consistory is the anglicized form of the consistorium, a council of the closest advisors of the Roman emperors. It can also refer to: *A papal consistory, a formal meeting of the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church * Consistor ...
was to keep watch to prevent flagrant, unrepentant offenders from partaking. Exclusion from the Lord's Supper was normally intended to be temporary, until the offender repented. In Reformed churches throughout continental Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Lord's Supper was celebrated on feast days, and parishioners were expected to dress in a dignified manner. Common bread was used rather than unleavened
sacramental bread Sacramental bread, also called Communion bread, Eucharistic bread, the Lamb or simply the host ( la, hostia, lit=sacrificial victim), is the bread used in the Christian ritual of the Eucharist. Along with sacramental wine, it is one of two eleme ...
.


See also

*
Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John C ...
*
Covenant renewal worship Covenant renewal worship is an approach to Christian worship practiced in some Reformed churches, in which the order of worship is modeled on the structure of biblical covenants and sacrifices. One popular order is as follows: #Call to Worship #C ...
*
Worship service (evangelicalism) A church service (or a service of worship) is a formalized period of Christian communal worship, often held in a church building. It often but not exclusively occurs on Sunday, or Saturday in the case of those churches practicing seventh-day Sa ...


References


Bibliography

* * * * *{{cite book, last=Trocmé-Latter, first=Daniel, title=The Singing of the Strasbourg Protestants, 1523-1541, year=2015, publisher=Ashgate, location=Farnham, isbn=978-1472432063


External links


Texts

*
''Early Prayer Books of America: Being a Descriptive Account of Prayer Books Published in the United States, Mexico and Canada''
by Rev. John Wright, D.D. St Paul, MN: Privately Printed, 1898. Pages 181 to 187 are entitled "The Prayer Book of the Reformed Dutch Church", pages 188 to 210 are entitled "The Prayer Book of the French Protestants, Charleston, South Carolina", ages 211 to 228 are entitled "Presbyterian Prayer Books", and pages 248 to 260 entitled "The Prayer Books of the German Reformed Church." (597 pdfs) Church of Scotland *

Book of Common Order. (Modern spelling version.) *
Directory text incorporated in ''ACT of the PARLIAMENT of the KINGDOM of SCOTLAND, approving and establishing the DIRECTORY for Publick Worship''
Huguenot *
''The French Protestant (Huguenot) Church in the city of Charleston, South Carolina''
Includes history, text of memorial tablets, and the rules adopted in 1869. (1898, 40 pdfs) *
''La Liturgie: ou La Manière de célébrer le service Divin; Qui est établie Dans le Eglises de la Principauté de Neufchatel & Vallangin''
(1713, 160 pdfs) *
''La Liturgie: ou La Manière de célébrer le service Divin; Qui est établie Dans le Eglises de la Principauté de Neufchatel & Vallangin''
Revised and corrected second edition. (1737, 302 pdfs) *
''La Liturgie: ou La Manière de Célébrer le Service Divin, Comme elle est établie Dans le Eglises de la Principauté de Neufchatel & Vallangin. Nouvelle édition, Augmentée de quelques Prieres, Collectes & Cantiques''
(1772, 256 pdfs) *
''La Liturgie: ou La Manière de Célébrer le Service Divin, qui est établie Dans le Eglises de la Principauté de Neufchatel & Vallangin. Cinquieme édition, revue, corrigée & augmentée''
(1799, 232 pdfs)
''La Liturgie, ou La Manière de Célébrer le Service Divin, dans le églises du Canton de Vaud''
(1807, 120 pdfs) * ''The Liturgy, or Forms of Divine Service, of the French Protestant Church, of Charleston, S. C., Translated from the Liturgy of the Churches of Neufchatel and Vallangin: editions of 1737 and 1772. With Some Additional Prayers, Carefully Selected. The Whole Adapted to Public Worship in the United States of America.'' Third edition. New York, NY: Anson D. F. Randolph & Company, 1853. 228 pp.
Google Books
and th
Internet Archive
Available also fro
Making of America Books
as a DLXS file or in hardcover. *
''The Liturgy of the French Protestant Church, Translated from the Editions of 1737 and 1772, Published at Neufchatel, with Additional Prayers Carefully Selected, and Some Alterations. Arranged for the Use of the Congregation in the City of Charleston, S. C.''
New York, NY: Charles M. Cornwell, Steam Printer, 1869. (186 pdfs) *
''The Liturgy Used in the Churches of the Principality of Neufchatel: with a Letter from the Learned Dr. Jablonski,Concerning the Nature of Liturgies: To which is Added , The Form of Prayer lately introduced into the Church of Geneva''
(1712, 143 pdfs) *
''Preamble and rules for the government of the French Protestant Church of Charleston: adopted at meetings of the corporation held on the 12th and the 19th of November, 1843''
(1845, 26 pdfs) *
''Synodicon in Gallia Reformata: or, the Acts, Decisions, Decrees, and Canons of those Famous National Councils of the Reformed Churches in France''
by John Quick. Volume 1 of 2. (1692, 693 pdfs) *
Synodicon in Gallia Reformata: or, the Acts, Decisions, Decrees, and Canons of those Famous National Councils of the Reformed Churches in France
by John Quick. Volume 2 of 2. (1692, 615 pdfs) Presbyterian *
The Book of Common Worship of 1906
o
Open Library
Cumberland Presbyterian Church The Cumberland Presbyterian Church is a Presbyterian denomination spawned by the Second Great Awakening. Matthew H. Gore, The History of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in Kentucky to 1988, (Memphis, Tennessee: Joint Heritage Committee, 2000) ...
*
''The Songs of Zion. The New Official Hymnal of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church''
(1915, 456 pdfs)
Presbyterian Church in the United States The Presbyterian Church in the United States (PCUS, originally Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America) was a Protestant denomination in the Southern and border states of the United States that existed from 1861 to 1983. That ye ...
*
''Assembly Songs: For use in Evangelistic Services, Sabbath Schools, Young People's Societies, Devotional Meetings, and the Home''
(1910, 232 pdfs) *
''Book of Hymns and Tunes, Comprising the Psalms and Hymns for the Worship of God, Approved by the General Assembly of 1866, Arranged with Appropriate Tunes, and an Appendix, Prepared by the Presbyterian Committee of Publication, by the Authority of the Assembly of 1873''
(1874, 424 pdfs) Reformed *
''Additional Hymns, Adopted by the General Synod of the Reformed Dutch Church, in North America, at Their Session, June, 1831, and Authorized to Be Used in the Churches under Their Care''
(1831, 169 pdfs) *
''The Liturgy of the Reformed Church in America, As Reported to the General Synod of 1873, by the Committee on Revision''
(1873, 140 pdfs) *
''The Psalms and Hymns, with the Catechism, Confession of Faith, and Canons, of the Synod of Dort, and Liturgy of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America''
Authorized by the General Synod to Be Used in the Churches under Their Care. (1854, 950 pdfs) *
''The Psalms and Hymns, with the Doctrinal Standards and Liturgy, of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America''
(1860, 1,022 pdfs) *
''The Psalms of David, with Hymns & Spiritual Songs. Also, the Catechism, Confession of Faith, and Liturgy, of the Reformed Church in the Netherlands. For the use of the Reformed Church in North-America''
(1792, 510 pdfs) *
''The Psalms of David, with Hymns & Spiritual Songs. Also, the Catechism, Confession of Faith, and Liturgy, of the Reformed Church in the Netherlands. For the use of the Reformed Church in North-America''
(1810, 492 pdfs) Protestant worship and liturgy Calvinism