proportional counter
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The proportional counter is a type of
gaseous ionization detector Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in particle physics to detect the presence of ionizing particles, and in radiation protection applications to measure ionizing radiation. They use the ionising effect of radi ...
device used to measure
particle In the Outline of physical science, physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small wikt:local, localized physical body, object which can be described by several physical property, physical or chemical property, chemical ...
s of
ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation (or ionising radiation), including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles can travel ...
. The key feature is its ability to measure the
energy In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat a ...
of incident radiation, by producing a detector output pulse that is ''proportional'' to the radiation energy absorbed by the detector due to an ionizing event; hence the detector's name. It is widely used where energy levels of incident radiation must be known, such as in the discrimination between
alpha Alpha (uppercase , lowercase ; grc, ἄλφα, ''álpha'', or ell, άλφα, álfa) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of one. Alpha is derived from the Phoenician letter aleph , whic ...
and beta particles, or accurate measurement of
X-ray An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10  picometers to 10  nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30&nb ...
radiation dose. A proportional counter uses a combination of the mechanisms of a Geiger–Müller tube and an
ionization chamber The ionization chamber is the simplest type of gas-filled radiation detector, and is widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types of ionizing radiation, including X-rays, gamma rays, and beta particles. Conventionally, the term ...
, and operates in an intermediate voltage region between these. The accompanying plot shows the proportional counter operating voltage region for a co-axial cylinder arrangement.


Operation

In a proportional counter the fill gas of the chamber is an
inert gas An inert gas is a gas that does not readily undergo chemical reactions with other chemical substances and therefore does not readily form chemical compounds. The noble gases often do not react with many substances and were historically referred to ...
which is ionized by incident radiation, and a quench gas to ensure each pulse discharge terminates; a common mixture is 90% argon, 10% methane, known as P-10. An ionizing particle entering the gas collides with an atom of the inert gas and ionizes it to produce an electron and a positively charged ion, commonly known as an "ion pair". As the ionizing particle travels through the chamber it leaves a trail of ion pairs along its trajectory, the number of which is proportional to the energy of the particle if it is fully stopped within the gas. Typically a 1 MeV stopped particle will create about 30,000 ion pairs.Glenn F Knoll. Radiation Detection and Measurement, third edition 2000. John Wiley and sons, . The chamber geometry and the applied voltage is such that in most of the chamber the electric field strength is low and the chamber acts as an ion chamber. However, the field is strong enough to prevent re-combination of the ion pairs and causes positive ions to drift towards the cathode and electrons towards the anode. This is the "ion drift" region. In the immediate vicinity of the anode wire, the field strength becomes large enough to produce
Townsend avalanche The Townsend discharge or Townsend avalanche is a gas ionisation process where free electrons are accelerated by an electric field, collide with gas molecules, and consequently free additional electrons. Those electrons are in turn accelerated an ...
s. This avalanche region occurs only fractions of a millimeter from the anode wire, which itself is of a very small diameter. The purpose of this is to use the multiplication effect of the avalanche produced by each ion pair. This is the "avalanche" region. A key design goal is that each original ionizing event due to incident radiation produces only one avalanche. This is to ensure proportionality between the number of original events and the total ion current. For this reason, the applied voltage, the geometry of the chamber and the diameter of the anode wire are critical to ensure proportional operation. If avalanches start to self-multiply due to UV photons as they do in a Geiger–Muller tube, then the counter enters a region of "limited proportionality" until at a higher applied voltage the Geiger discharge mechanism occurs with complete ionization of the gas enveloping the anode wire and consequent loss of particle energy information. Therefore, it can be said that the proportional counter has the key design feature of two distinct ionization regions: #Ion drift region: in the outer volume of the chamber – the creation of number ion pairs proportional to incident radiation energy. #Avalanche region: in the immediate vicinity of the anode – charge amplification of ion pair currents, while maintaining localized avalanches. The process of charge amplification greatly improves the
signal-to-noise ratio Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in deci ...
of the detector and reduces the subsequent electronic amplification required. In summary, the proportional counter is an ingenious combination of two ionization mechanisms in one chamber which finds wide practical use.


Gas mixtures

Usually the detector is filled with a
noble gas The noble gases (historically also the inert gases; sometimes referred to as aerogens) make up a class of chemical elements with similar properties; under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemi ...
; they have the lowest ionization voltages and do not degrade chemically. Typically
neon Neon is a chemical element with the symbol Ne and atomic number 10. It is a noble gas. Neon is a colorless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions, with about two-thirds the density of air. It was discovered (along with krypton ...
,
argon Argon is a chemical element with the symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abu ...
,
krypton Krypton (from grc, κρυπτός, translit=kryptos 'the hidden one') is a chemical element with the symbol Kr and atomic number 36. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas that occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere and is often ...
or xenon are used. Low-energy x-rays are best detected with lighter nuclei (neon), which are less sensitive to higher-energy photons. Krypton or xenon are chosen when for higher-energy x-rays or for higher desired efficiency. Often the main gas is mixed with a quenching additive. A popular mixture is P10 (10%
methane Methane ( , ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms). It is a group-14 hydride, the simplest alkane, and the main constituent of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane on Eart ...
, 90% argon). Typical working pressure is 1 atmosphere (about 100 kPa).http://www.canberra.com/literature/fundamental-principles/pdf/Gamma-Xray-Detection.pdf


Signal amplification by multiplication

In the case of a cylindrical proportional counter the multiplication, M, of the signal caused by an avalanche can be modeled as follows: : \ln M=\frac\frac\left ln\left(\frac\right)-\ln K\right Where a is the anode wire radius, b is the radius of the counter, p is the pressure of the gas, and V is the operating voltage. K is a property of the gas used and relates the energy needed to cause an avalanche to the pressure of the gas. The final term \Delta V_ gives the change in voltage caused by an avalanche.


Applications


Spectroscopy

The proportionality between the energy of the charged particle traveling through the chamber and the total charge created makes proportional counters useful for charged particle
spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
. By measuring the total charge (time
integral In mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented i ...
of the
electric current An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. The moving pa ...
) between the electrodes, we can determine the particle's
kinetic energy In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its accele ...
because the number of ion pairs created by the incident ionizing charged particle is proportional to its energy. The energy resolution of a proportional counter, however, is limited because both the initial ionization event and the subsequent 'multiplication' event are subject to statistical fluctuations characterized by a standard deviation equal to the square root of the average number formed. However, in practice these are not as great as would be predicted due to the effect of the empirical
Fano factor In statistics, the Fano factor, like the coefficient of variation, is a measure of the statistical dispersion, dispersion of a probability distribution of a Fano noise. It is named after Ugo Fano, an Italian American physicist. The Fano factor is d ...
which reduces these fluctuations. In the case of argon, this is experimentally about 0.2.


Photon detection

Proportional counters are also useful for detection of high energy
photons A photon () is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless, so they alway ...
, such as
gamma-ray A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol γ or \gamma), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nucleus, atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic wav ...
s, provided these can penetrate the entrance window. They are also used for the detection of
X-ray An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10  picometers to 10  nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30&nb ...
s to below 1 Kev energy levels, using thin-walled tubes operating at or around atmospheric pressure.


Radioactive contamination detection

Proportional counters in the form of large area planar detectors are used extensively to check for
radioactive contamination Radioactive contamination, also called radiological pollution, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids, or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirab ...
on personnel, flat surfaces, tools, and items of clothing. This is normally in the form of installed instrumentation because of the difficulties of providing portable gas supplies for hand-held devices. They are constructed with a large area detection window made from such as metalized
mylar BoPET (biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate) is a polyester film made from stretched polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and is used for its high tensile strength, chemical and dimensional stability, transparency, reflectivity, gas and aro ...
which forms one wall of the detection chamber and is part of the cathode. The anode wire is routed in a convoluted manner within the detector chamber to optimize the detection efficiency. They are normally used to detect
alpha Alpha (uppercase , lowercase ; grc, ἄλφα, ''álpha'', or ell, άλφα, álfa) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of one. Alpha is derived from the Phoenician letter aleph , whic ...
and
beta Beta (, ; uppercase , lowercase , or cursive ; grc, βῆτα, bē̂ta or ell, βήτα, víta) is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 2. In Modern Greek, it represents the voiced labiod ...
particles, and can enable discrimination between them by providing a pulse output proportional to the energy deposited in the chamber by each particle. They have a high efficiency for beta, but lower for alpha. The efficiency reduction for alpha is due to the
attenuation In physics, attenuation (in some contexts, extinction) is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable att ...
effect of the entry window, though distance from the surface being checked also has a significant effect, and ideally a source of alpha radiation should be less than 10mm from the detector due to attenuation in air. These chambers operate at very slight positive pressure above ambient atmospheric pressure. The gas can be sealed in the chamber, or can be changed continuously, in which case they are known as "gas-flow proportional counters". Gas flow types have the advantage that they will tolerate small holes in the mylar screen which can occur in use, but they do require a continuous gas supply.


Guidance on application use

In the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
the
Health and Safety Executive The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a UK government agency responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into occupational risks in Great Britain. It is a non-depar ...
(HSE) has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the application concerne

This covers all radiation instrument technologies and is a useful comparative guide to the use of proportional counters.


See also

*
Gaseous ionization detectors Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in particle physics to detect the presence of ionizing particles, and in radiation protection applications to measure ionizing radiation. They use the ionising effect of radia ...
*
Micropattern gaseous detector Micropattern gaseous detectors (MPGDs) are a group of gaseous ionization detectors Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in particle physics to detect the presence of ionizing particles, and in radiation protecti ...
*
Multiwire proportional chamber A wire chamber or multi-wire proportional chamber is a type of proportional counter that detects charged particles and photons and can give positional information on their trajectory, by tracking the trails of gaseous ionization. was located via ...


References

* Glenn F Knoll. ''Radiation Detection and Measurement'', third edition 2000. John Wiley and sons, . * * E. Mathieson, Induced charge distributions in proportional detectors, https://web.archive.org/web/20081011022244/http://www.inst.bnl.gov/programs/gasnobledet/publications/Mathieson's_Book.pdf


External links


Patents

* , S. Fine, "''Proportional counter''" * , E. W. Molloy, "''Air proportional counter''" {{Radiation protection, state=uncollapsed Particle detectors Ionising radiation detectors Counting instruments Radiation protection de:Proportionalzähler hu:Proporcionális kamra